Sources
Every source behind the estimates and the company profiles, listed once, with its date, kind, and what uses it. 455 sources in all.
By kind: trade press 132; company-disclosed 119; government 80; research or NGO report 32; peer-reviewed 32; vendor blog 30; preprint 11; court record 7; industry report 4; researcher newsletter 4; market data 2; creator self-report 1; standards body 1. Kind is assigned by publisher. Trade press includes law firm and class action publications. Dates are as the research recorded them: publication date where known, otherwise the date read. A source appears under the first area that uses it.
Companies and data brokers 197
- https://cirpamazon.substack.com/p/walmart-growsto-a-fraction-of-amazon
2025, 2026 · industry report
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1018724/000101872426000004/amzn-20251231.htm
2025, 2026-02-06 · company-disclosed
Used by: Amazon: retail media revenue, basis of impressions (F14); Amazon: data practices; Amazon: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.amazon.com/gp/help/customer/display.html?nodeId=GX7NJQ4ZB8MHFRNJ
2026-06-30 · company-disclosed
- https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2025/09/ftc-secures-historic-25-billion-settlement-against-amazon
2025-09-25 · government
Used by: Amazon: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.ftc.gov/business-guidance/blog/2023/05/out-mouths-babes-ftc-says-amazon-kept-kids-alexa-voice-data-forever-even-after-parents-ordered
2023-05-31 · government
Used by: Amazon: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.cnbc.com/2023/05/31/ftc-sues-amazon-over-ring-doorbell-privacy-violations.html
2023-05-31 · trade press
Used by: Amazon: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.wilmerhale.com/en/insights/blogs/wilmerhale-privacy-and-cybersecurity-law/20250220-first-lawsuit-filed-under-washingtons-my-health-my-data-act
2025-02-10 · trade press
Used by: Amazon: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/104169/000010416926000055/wmt-20260131.htm
2026, 2026-03-13 · company-disclosed
Used by: Walmart: member count; Walmart: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/104169/000010416926000032/earningsreleasefy26q4.htm
2026, 2026-02-19 · company-disclosed
Used by: Walmart: retail media revenue, basis of impressions (F14); Walmart: data practices
- https://corporate.walmart.com/privacy-security/walmart-privacy-notice
2026-08-20 · company-disclosed
- https://corporate.walmart.com/news/2026/03/23/walmart-and-vizio-scale-content-to-commerce-at-newfronts
2026-03-23 · company-disclosed
Used by: Walmart: data practices
- https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2026/02/walmart-agrees-100-million-judgment-settle-ftc-states-charges-over-deceptive-earnings-claims-related
2026-02-25 · government
Used by: Walmart: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2025/06/walmart-pay-10-million-settle-ftc-allegations-it-allowed-scammers-obtain-millions-consumers-using
2025-06-20 · government
Used by: Walmart: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.classaction.org/news/walmart-collected-illinois-shoppers-biometric-data-from-security-cameras-without-consent-lawsuit-says
2022-09-01 · trade press
Used by: Walmart: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.courthousenews.com/lowes-hit-with-class-action-over-collection-of-consumers-voiceprints/
2026-08, 2026-09-11 · trade press
Used by: Walmart: enforcement and litigation; Lowe's: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.emailtooltester.com/en/blog/ecommerce-email-marketing-statistics/
vendor blog
Used by: Walmart: email count (F7); Target: email count (F7); Best Buy: email count (F7); Costco: email count (F7)
- https://finance.yahoo.com/news/cart-q4-deep-dive-multi-134045107.html
2025 · trade press
Used by: Instacart (Maplebear): member count
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1579091/000157909126000018/cart-20251231.htm
2025 · company-disclosed
Used by: Instacart (Maplebear): retail media revenue, basis of impressions (F14)
- https://www.instacart.com/privacy
2024-09-16 · company-disclosed
Used by: Instacart (Maplebear): data practices; Instacart (Maplebear): third parties
- https://www.consumerreports.org/media-room/press-releases/2025/12/new-report-exposes-instacarts-hidden-price-games/
2025-12-09 · research or NGO report
Used by: Instacart (Maplebear): data practices
- https://www.cbsnews.com/news/instacart-ends-ai-price-testing-tool-eversight/
2025-12-22 · trade press
Used by: Instacart (Maplebear): data practices
- https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2025/12/instacart-pay-60-million-consumer-refunds-settle-ftc-lawsuit-over-allegations-it-engaged-deceptive
2025-12-18 · government
Used by: Instacart (Maplebear): enforcement and litigation
- https://groundworkcollaborative.org/news/following-groundworks-bombshell-report-ftc-opens-investigation-into-instacart-price-experimentation/
2025-12-18 · research or NGO report
Used by: Instacart (Maplebear): enforcement and litigation
- https://corporate.target.com/news-features/article/2024/03/target-circle-loyalty-program
2024 · company-disclosed
Used by: Target: member count
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/27419/000002741926000016/tgt-20260131.htm
2025, 2026-03-11 · company-disclosed
Used by: Target: retail media revenue, basis of impressions (F14); Target: data practices
- https://www.target.com/c/target-privacy-policy/-/N-4sr7p
2026-06-15 · company-disclosed
- https://ag.ny.gov/press-release/2017/ag-schneiderman-announces-185-million-multi-state-settlement-target-corporation
2017-05-23 · government
Used by: Target: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.jurist.org/news/2024/11/federal-court-allows-illegal-data-collection-claims-against-target-to-move-forward/
2024-11-23 · trade press
Used by: Target: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/56873/000110465926037723/kr-20260131x10k.htm
2025, 2026-03-31 · company-disclosed
Used by: Kroger: member count; Kroger: retail media revenue, basis of impressions (F14); Kroger: data practices
- https://www.kroger.com/i/privacy-policy
2026-09-09 · company-disclosed
- https://themarkup.org/privacy/2023/02/16/forget-milk-and-eggs-supermarkets-are-having-a-fire-sale-on-data-about-you
2023-02-16 · trade press
Used by: Kroger: data practices
- https://www.grocerydive.com/news/kroger-electronic-shelf-labels-instore-technology-senators-inflation/723939/
2024-08-12 · trade press
Used by: Kroger: data practices
- https://themarkup.org/privacy/2023/11/27/kroger-sued-for-sharing-sensitive-health-data-with-meta
2023-11-27 · trade press
Used by: Kroger: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.hipaajournal.com/kroger-proposes-5-million-settlement-to-resolve-data-breach-lawsuits/
2021-07-09 · trade press
Used by: Kroger: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/354950/000162828026019436/hd-20260201.htm
2025 · company-disclosed
Used by: The Home Depot: member count
- https://www.homedepot.com/privacy/privacy-and-security-statement
2025-12-29 · company-disclosed
Used by: The Home Depot: data practices; The Home Depot: third parties
- https://www.priv.gc.ca/en/opc-actions-and-decisions/investigations/investigations-into-businesses/2023/pipeda-2023-001/
2023-01-26 · government
Used by: The Home Depot: data practices
- https://www.oag.ca.gov/news/press-releases/attorney-general-becerra-announces-175-million-settlement-against-home-depot
2020-11-24 · government
Used by: The Home Depot: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.priv.gc.ca/en/opc-news/news-and-announcements/2023/nr-c_230126/
2023-01-26 · government
Used by: The Home Depot: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.dataprivacyandsecurityinsider.com/2025/11/home-depot-facial-scan-lawsuit-voluntarily-dismissed-whats-next-for-biometric-privacy-compliance/
2025-08-01 · trade press
Used by: The Home Depot: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1646972/000164697226000032/aci-20260228.htm
2025, 2026-04-27 · company-disclosed
Used by: Albertsons Companies (Safeway, Jewel-Osco, Vons, others): member count; Albertsons Companies (Safeway, Jewel-Osco, Vons, others): data practices
- https://www.albertsonscompanies.com/policies-and-disclosures/privacy-policy/default.aspx
2025-12-09 · company-disclosed
Used by: Albertsons Companies (Safeway, Jewel-Osco, Vons, others): data practices; Albertsons Companies (Safeway, Jewel-Osco, Vons, others): third parties
- https://www.classaction.org/news/5.95m-albertsons-settlement-ends-class-action-lawsuit-over-alleged-marketing-texts
2025-08-20 · trade press
Used by: Albertsons Companies (Safeway, Jewel-Osco, Vons, others): enforcement and litigation
- https://topclassactions.com/lawsuit-settlements/closed-settlements/albertsons-biometric-privacy-1m-class-action-settlement/
trade press
Used by: Albertsons Companies (Safeway, Jewel-Osco, Vons, others): enforcement and litigation
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/764478/000076447826000009/bby-20260131.htm
company-disclosed
Used by: Best Buy: member count
- https://www.fool.com/earnings/call-transcripts/2026/03/03/best-buy-bby-q4-2026-earnings-call-transcript/
FY2026, 2026-03-03 · trade press
Used by: Best Buy: retail media revenue, basis of impressions (F14); Best Buy: data practices
- https://www.bestbuy.com/site/help-topics/privacy-policy/pcmcat204400050062.c?id=pcmcat204400050062
2025-10-01 · company-disclosed
- https://www.classaction.org/news/walmart-best-buy-kohls-home-depot-scanned-illinois-shoppers-faces-without-consent-class-actions-allege
2022-08-12 · trade press
Used by: Best Buy: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/909832/000090983225000101/cost-20250831.htm
2025 · company-disclosed
Used by: Costco: member count
- https://www.costco.com/privacy-policy.html
2026-04-20 · company-disclosed
- https://www.seattletimes.com/business/costco-accused-of-violating-online-customer-privacy/
2023-10-09 · trade press
Used by: Costco: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.fool.com/earnings/call-transcripts/2026/03/12/dollar-general-dg-q4-2025-earnings-transcript/
2025, 2026-03-12 · trade press
Used by: Dollar General: member count; Dollar General: retail media revenue, basis of impressions (F14); Dollar General: data practices
- https://www.dollargeneral.com/privacy-policy
2026-01-01 · company-disclosed
Used by: Dollar General: data practices; Dollar General: third parties
- https://www.attorneygeneral.gov/taking-action/attorney-general-dave-sunday-obtains-1-55-million-settlement-with-dollar-general-for-allegedly-overcharging-consumers/
2025-12 · government
Used by: Dollar General: enforcement and litigation
- https://coag.gov/2025/400k-settlement-with-dollar-general-for-overcharging-customers/
2025-10 · government
Used by: Dollar General: enforcement and litigation
- https://corporate.lowes.com/sites/lowes-corp/files/low-usq-transcript-2026-08-19.pdf
2026 · company-disclosed
Used by: Lowe's: member count
- https://www.lowes.com/l/about/privacy-and-security-statement
2026-03-11 · company-disclosed
- https://www.biometricupdate.com/201909/new-biometrics-privacy-law-suits-filed-against-video-sharing-and-loss-prevention-systems
2019-09-04 · trade press
Used by: Lowe's: enforcement and litigation
- https://gothamist.com/news/nyc-wegmans-is-storing-biometric-data-on-shoppers-eyes-voices-and-faces
2026-01-03 · trade press
Used by: Wegmans: data practices
- https://www.cnn.com/2026/01/12/business/wegmans-facial-recognition-technology
2026-01-12 · trade press
Used by: Wegmans: data practices
- https://www.wegmans.com/privacy
2025-10-29 · company-disclosed
- https://www.grocerydive.com/news/giant-eagle-wegmans-retail-media-network-regional-grocer-rippl/717878/
2024-06-04 · trade press
Used by: Wegmans: data practices
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1618921/000161892124000084/wba-20240831.htm
2024 · company-disclosed
Used by: Walgreens: member count
- https://improvado.io/blog/top-retail-media-networks
2026 · vendor blog
Used by: Walgreens: retail media revenue, basis of impressions (F14); CVS Pharmacy: retail media revenue, basis of impressions (F14)
- https://www.walgreens.com/topic/help/generalhelp/privacyandsecurity.jsp
2026-01-01 · company-disclosed
Used by: Walgreens: data practices; Walgreens: third parties
- https://themarkup.org/pixel-hunt/2023/06/30/need-to-get-plan-b-or-an-hiv-test-online-facebook-may-know-about-it
2023-06-30, 2023-02 · trade press
Used by: Walgreens: data practices; Rite Aid: data practices; Rite Aid: enforcement and litigation; CVS Pharmacy: data practices
- https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2025-01-16/walgreens-fridge-fight-bodes-poorly-for-future-of-retail
2025-01-16 · trade press
Used by: Walgreens: data practices
- https://www.politifact.com/factchecks/2022/jan/11/facebook-posts/no-high-tech-refrigerators-walgreens-arent-scannin/
2022-01-11 · trade press
Used by: Walgreens: data practices
- https://www.cspdailynews.com/company-news/walgreens-now-under-private-ownership-after-sycamore-partners-purchase
2025-08 · trade press
Used by: Walgreens: data practices
- https://www.almanacnews.com/news/2012/12/14/walgreens-to-pay-16m-for-environmental-violations/
2012-12-14 · trade press
Used by: Walgreens: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.countyofmonterey.gov/Home/Components/News/News/7885
2020-12 · government
Used by: Walgreens: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.supermarketnews.com/grocery-technology/cooler-screens-sues-walgreens-for-200m
2023-09 · trade press
Used by: Walgreens: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/794367/000155837023005400/m-20230519xdef14a.htm
2022 · company-disclosed
Used by: Macy's: member count
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/794367/000162828026021721/m-20260131.htm
2025, 2026-03-27 · company-disclosed
Used by: Macy's: retail media revenue, basis of impressions (F14); Macy's: data practices
- https://www.macys.com/customer-service/articles/macys-and-macyscom-notice-of-privacy-practices-2
2026-08 · company-disclosed
- https://www.courthousenews.com/wp-content/uploads/2025/05/50-million-biometrics-class-settlement.pdf
2025-03-20 · trade press
Used by: Macy's: enforcement and litigation
- https://openclassactions.com/news/cema-email-lawsuits-washington.php
2025-11 · trade press
Used by: Macy's: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2023/12/rite-aid-banned-using-ai-facial-recognition-after-ftc-says-retailer-deployed-technology-without
2023-12-19 · government
Used by: Rite Aid: data practices; Rite Aid: enforcement and litigation; Rite Aid: third parties
- https://www.cnn.com/2025/10/04/business/rite-aid-closes-stores
2025-10-04 · trade press
Used by: Rite Aid: data practices
- https://news.bloomberglaw.com/bankruptcy-law/rite-aid-seeks-nod-on-7-8-million-intellectual-property-sale
2025-12-08 · trade press
Used by: Rite Aid: data practices
- https://hilcoglobal.com/services/intellectual-property/for-sale/rite-aid-intellectual-property-acquisition-opportunity/
accessed 2026-09-25 · company-disclosed
Used by: Rite Aid: data practices
- https://riteaid.com/pharmacy
accessed 2026-09-25 · company-disclosed
Used by: Rite Aid: data practices
- https://www.cvsmediaexchange.com/audience
2026, accessed 2026-09-25 · company-disclosed
Used by: CVS Pharmacy: member count; CVS Pharmacy: data practices
- https://www.cvs.com/help/privacy_policy.jsp
2026-07-01 · company-disclosed
Used by: CVS Pharmacy: data practices; CVS Pharmacy: third parties
- https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2009/02/cvs-caremark-settles-ftc-chargesfailed-protect-medical-financial-privacy-customers-employeescvs
2009-02-18 · government
Used by: CVS Pharmacy: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.hhs.gov/hipaa/for-professionals/compliance-enforcement/examples/cvs/index.html
2009-02-18 · government
Used by: CVS Pharmacy: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.classaction.org/media/cvs-digital-settlement-notice.pdf
2026 · court record
Used by: CVS Pharmacy: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.classaction.org/media/cvs-criteo-settlement-agreement_1.pdf
2026 · court record
Used by: CVS Pharmacy: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.hipaajournal.com/cvs-health-criteo-american-wellness-corp-data-breach-settlements/
2026-09-24 · trade press
Used by: CVS Pharmacy: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1809519/000180951926000031/gdrx-20251231.htm
2025, 2026-02-26 · company-disclosed
Used by: GoodRx: member count; GoodRx: retail media revenue, basis of impressions (F14); GoodRx: data practices
- https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2023/02/ftc-enforcement-action-bar-goodrx-sharing-consumers-sensitive-health-info-advertising
2023-02-01 · government
Used by: GoodRx: data practices; GoodRx: enforcement and litigation; GoodRx: third parties
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1809519/000180951926000152/gdrx-20260630.htm
2026-09-08 · company-disclosed
Used by: GoodRx: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/66783593/doe-v-goodrx-holdings-inc/
2026-09-08 · court record
Used by: GoodRx: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.mlex.com/mlex/data-privacy-security/articles/2522864
2026-09-08 · trade press
Used by: GoodRx: enforcement and litigation
- https://newsroom.sephora.com/sephora-unwraps-another-year-of-beauty-with-its-2026-beauty-insider-birthday-gift-offerings/
2025 · company-disclosed
Used by: Sephora: member count
- https://www.thedrum.com/opinion/meet-the-first-education-media-network
2025, 2026-05-06 · trade press
Used by: Sephora: retail media revenue, basis of impressions (F14); Sephora: data practices
- https://www.sephora.com/beauty/privacy-policy
2026-01-01 · company-disclosed
- https://oag.ca.gov/news/press-releases/attorney-general-bonta-announces-settlement-sephora-part-ongoing-enforcement
2022-08-24 · government
Used by: Sephora: enforcement and litigation
- https://jtip.law.northwestern.edu/2023/11/06/sephoras-biometric-scandal-an-analysis-of-data-privacy-crisis-management-in-the-beauty-industry/
2020-12 · peer-reviewed
Used by: Sephora: enforcement and litigation
- https://targetbay.com/ecommerce-email-marketing-report/beauty-cosmetics/
vendor blog
Used by: Sephora: email count (F7); Ulta Beauty: email count (F7)
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1357204/000135720420000015/dnkn-20191228x10k.htm
2019 · company-disclosed
Used by: Dunkin': member count
- https://privacypolicy.dunkindonuts.com/
2022-12-23 · company-disclosed
Used by: Dunkin': retail media revenue, basis of impressions (F14); Dunkin': data practices; Dunkin': third parties
- https://ag.ny.gov/press-release/2020/attorney-general-james-gets-dunkin-fill-holes-security-reimburse-hacked-customers
2020-09-15 · government
Used by: Dunkin': enforcement and litigation
- https://www.fool.com/earnings/call-transcripts/2026/08/31/ulta-beauty-ulta-q2-2026-earnings-call-transcript/
2026, 2026-08 · trade press
Used by: Ulta Beauty: member count; Ulta Beauty: data practices
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1403568/000110465926035243/ulta-20260131x10k.htm
2026-03-26 · company-disclosed
Used by: Ulta Beauty: data practices
- https://www.ulta.com/company/privacy
2026-08-16 · company-disclosed
Used by: Ulta Beauty: data practices; Ulta Beauty: third parties
- https://topclassactions.com/lawsuit-settlements/lawsuit-news/ulta-salon-accused-of-tracking-customers-unlawfully-with-meta-pixel/
2026-08-11 · trade press
Used by: Ulta Beauty: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.thefashionlaw.com/court-refuses-to-dismiss-cema-case-targeting-ulta-beauty/
2026-02-27 · trade press
Used by: Ulta Beauty: enforcement and litigation
- https://topclassactions.com/lawsuit-settlements/lawsuit-news/class-action-claims-ulta-misleads-shoppers-with-false-free-gift-emails/
2025-12-15 · trade press
Used by: Ulta Beauty: enforcement and litigation
- https://news.bloomberglaw.com/privacy-and-data-security/customer-dismisses-biometric-privacy-suit-against-ulta-salon
2023-06-08 · trade press
Used by: Ulta Beauty: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/63908/000006390826000067/exhibit991-6302026.htm
2026 · company-disclosed
Used by: McDonald's: member count
- https://www.cnbc.com/2026/09/23/why-mcdonalds-is-building-an-advertising-business.html
2026-09-23 · trade press
Used by: McDonald's: data practices
- https://www.mcdonalds.com/us/en-us/privacy.html
2026-07-01, accessed 2026-09-25 · company-disclosed
Used by: McDonald's: data practices; McDonald's: third parties
- https://topclassactions.com/lawsuit-settlements/privacy/mcdonalds-denies-collecting-customers-biometric-data-at-drive-thrus/
2023-07-21 · trade press
Used by: McDonald's: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.marketingdive.com/news/nordstrom-plots-ad-expansion-as-retail-media-network-generates-40m/619657/
2022, 2021, 2022-03-02 · trade press
Used by: Nordstrom: member count; Nordstrom: retail media revenue, basis of impressions (F14); Nordstrom: data practices
- https://www.nordstrom.com/browse/customer-service/policy/privacy
2026-03-12 · company-disclosed
Used by: Nordstrom: data practices; Nordstrom: third parties
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/72333/000110465925050982/tm2515470d12_ex99-1.htm
2025-05-20 · company-disclosed
Used by: Nordstrom: data practices
- https://topclassactions.com/lawsuit-settlements/lawsuit-news/class-action-alleges-nordstrom-racks-limited-time-sales-were-fabricated-and-perpetual/
2025-11-13 · trade press
Used by: Nordstrom: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/701985/000070198526000008/bbwi-20260131.htm
2025 · company-disclosed
Used by: Bath & Body Works: member count
- https://www.bathandbodyworks.com/customer-care/privacy-and-security.html
2024-07-01 · company-disclosed
Used by: Bath & Body Works: retail media revenue, basis of impressions (F14); Bath & Body Works: data practices; Bath & Body Works: third parties
- https://www.bathandbodyworks.com/
accessed 2026-09-25 · company-disclosed
Used by: Bath & Body Works: data practices
- https://freeyourself.com/blogs/news/beauty-email-marketing-open-rates
vendor blog
Used by: Bath & Body Works: email count (F7)
- https://finance.yahoo.com/markets/stocks/articles/starbucks-corp-sbux-q3-2026-050408237.html
2026 · trade press
Used by: Starbucks: member count
- https://www.starbucks.com/terms/privacy-policy/
2026-01-22 · company-disclosed
Used by: Starbucks: retail media revenue, basis of impressions (F14); Starbucks: data practices; Starbucks: third parties
- https://www.biometricupdate.com/202407/biometric-data-privacy-lawsuit-against-amazon-starbucks-mostly-thrown-out
2024-07 · trade press
Used by: Starbucks: enforcement and litigation
- https://gmauthority.com/blog/2026/01/gm-onstar-hits-new-global-subscription-milestone/
2025 · trade press
Used by: General Motors (OnStar Smart Driver): member count
- https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2026/01/ftc-finalizes-order-settling-allegations-gm-onstar-collected-sold-geolocation-data-without-consumers
2026-01-14 · government
Used by: General Motors (OnStar Smart Driver): data practices; General Motors (OnStar Smart Driver): enforcement and litigation
- https://www.wyden.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/wyden-markey_auto_privacy_letter_to_ftc.pdf
2024-07-26, 2024 · government
Used by: General Motors (OnStar Smart Driver): data practices; General Motors (OnStar Smart Driver): third parties; Hyundai Motor America (Driving Score / Bluelink): member count; Hyundai Motor America (Driving Score / Bluelink): data practices; Hyundai Motor America (Driving Score / Bluelink): third parties; American Honda Motor Co. (Driver Feedback): member count; American Honda Motor Co. (Driver Feedback): data practices; American Honda Motor Co. (Driver Feedback): third parties; Verisk Analytics: data practices; Verisk Analytics: third parties
- https://oag.ca.gov/news/press-releases/when-it-comes-data-privacy-consumers-must-be-driver%E2%80%99s-seat-attorney-general
2026-05-08 · government
Used by: General Motors (OnStar Smart Driver): data practices; General Motors (OnStar Smart Driver): enforcement and litigation; LexisNexis Risk Solutions (RELX): data practices
- https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/11/technology/carmakers-driver-tracking-insurance.html
2024-03-11 · trade press
Used by: General Motors (OnStar Smart Driver): data practices
- https://ago.nebraska.gov/attorney-general-mike-hilgers-files-lawsuit-against-general-motors-deceptive-collection-and-sale
2025-07-08 · government
Used by: General Motors (OnStar Smart Driver): data practices; General Motors (OnStar Smart Driver): enforcement and litigation
- https://www.texasattorneygeneral.gov/news/releases/attorney-general-ken-paxton-sues-general-motors-unlawfully-collecting-drivers-private-data-and
2024-08-13 · government
Used by: General Motors (OnStar Smart Driver): enforcement and litigation
- https://dicellolevitt.com/court-allows-gm-onstar-vehicle-data-privacy-lawsuit-to-move-forward/
2026-04-22 · trade press
Used by: General Motors (OnStar Smart Driver): enforcement and litigation; LexisNexis Risk Solutions (RELX): enforcement and litigation; Verisk Analytics: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.experian.com/content/dam/noindex/na/us/automotive/market-trends/2026/auto-market-trends-q2-2026.pdf
2026-09 · industry report
Used by: General Motors (OnStar Smart Driver): vehicles in operation
- https://cases.justia.com/federal/district-courts/illinois/ilndce/1:2025cv00407/470938/74/0.pdf
2026-03-03 · court record
Used by: Allstate / Arity (driving data from third-party apps): enforcement and litigation
- https://storage.courtlistener.com/recap/gov.uscourts.ilnd.470938/gov.uscourts.ilnd.470938.81.0.pdf
2026-04-29 · court record
Used by: Allstate / Arity (driving data from third-party apps): enforcement and litigation
- https://risk.lexisnexis.com/about-us/press-room/press-release/20240208-kia-joins-telematics-exchange
2024-02-08 · company-disclosed
Used by: Hyundai Motor America (Driving Score / Bluelink): data practices; LexisNexis Risk Solutions (RELX): data practices
- https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20240730791248/en/Keller-Rohrback-L.L.P.-Hyundai-and-Kia-Data-Sharing-Complaint-Filed
2024-07-30 · company-disclosed
Used by: Hyundai Motor America (Driving Score / Bluelink): enforcement and litigation
- https://techcrunch.com/2025/01/13/gravy-analytics-data-broker-breach-trove-of-location-data-threatens-privacy-millions/
2025-01-13 · trade press
Used by: Gravy Analytics / Venntel (Unacast): data practices
- https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2025/01/ftc-finalizes-order-prohibiting-gravy-analytics-venntel-selling-sensitive-location-data
2025-01-14 · government
Used by: Gravy Analytics / Venntel (Unacast): enforcement and litigation
- https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2026/05/ftc-ban-kochava-subsidiary-selling-sensitive-location-data-settle-charges-they-sold-location-data
2026-05-04 · government
Used by: Kochava / Collective Data Solutions: data practices; Kochava / Collective Data Solutions: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/ftc_gov/pdf/Kochava-Order.pdf
2026-06-25 · government
Used by: Kochava / Collective Data Solutions: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2024/12/ftc-takes-action-against-mobilewalla-collecting-selling-sensitive-location-data
2020, 2024-12-03 · government
Used by: Mobilewalla: member count; Mobilewalla: data practices; Mobilewalla: third parties
- https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2025/01/ftc-finalizes-order-banning-mobilewalla-selling-sensitive-location-data
2025-01 · government
Used by: Mobilewalla: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2024/01/ftc-order-prohibits-data-broker-x-mode-social-outlogic-selling-sensitive-location-data
2024-01-09 · government
Used by: X-Mode Social / Outlogic: data practices; X-Mode Social / Outlogic: third parties
- https://themarkup.org/privacy/2021/12/06/the-popular-family-safety-app-life360-is-selling-precise-location-data-on-its-tens-of-millions-of-user
2021-12-06 · trade press
Used by: X-Mode Social / Outlogic: data practices; Life360: data practices
- https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2024/04/ftc-finalizes-order-x-mode-successor-outlogic-prohibiting-it-sharing-or-selling-sensitive-location
2024-04-12 · government
Used by: X-Mode Social / Outlogic: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1283699/000128369926000010/tmus-20251231.htm
2025 · company-disclosed
Used by: T-Mobile US (incl. Sprint): member count
- https://www.t-mobile.com/news/business/t-mobile-advertising-acquires-blis-and-closes-vistar-media
2025, 2025-03-05 · company-disclosed
Used by: T-Mobile US (incl. Sprint): retail media revenue, basis of impressions (F14); T-Mobile US (incl. Sprint): data practices
- https://www.fcc.gov/document/fcc-fines-largest-wireless-carriers-sharing-location-data
2024-04-29 · government
Used by: T-Mobile US (incl. Sprint): data practices; Verizon: data practices; AT&T: data practices
- https://www.t-mobile.com/privacy-center/our-practices/privacy-policy
2026-06-26 · company-disclosed
Used by: T-Mobile US (incl. Sprint): data practices; T-Mobile US (incl. Sprint): third parties
- https://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/408252/t-mobile-location-privacy-fine-upheld.html
2025-08-19 · trade press
Used by: T-Mobile US (incl. Sprint): enforcement and litigation
- https://www.hunton.com/privacy-and-information-security-law/cppa-fines-honda-632-500-for-ccpa-violations
2025-03-12 · trade press
Used by: American Honda Motor Co. (Driver Feedback): enforcement and litigation
- https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2024/01/ftc-order-will-ban-inmarket-selling-precise-consumer-location-data
2024-01-18 · government
Used by: InMarket Media: data practices; InMarket Media: third parties
- https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2024/05/ftc-finalizes-order-inmarket-prohibiting-it-selling-or-sharing-precise-location-data
2024-05 · government
Used by: InMarket Media: enforcement and litigation
- https://risk.lexisnexis.com/about-us/press-room/press-release/20220628-telematics-exchange-5-year-anniversary
2022, 2022-06-28 · company-disclosed
Used by: LexisNexis Risk Solutions (RELX): member count; LexisNexis Risk Solutions (RELX): data practices; LexisNexis Risk Solutions (RELX): third parties
- https://techcrunch.com/2025/05/28/data-broker-giant-lexisnexis-says-breach-exposed-personal-information-of-over-364000-people/
2025-05-28 · trade press
Used by: LexisNexis Risk Solutions (RELX): data practices
- https://www.verizon.com/about/sites/default/files/Verizon_Fact_Sheet.pdf
2026 · company-disclosed
Used by: Verizon: member count
- https://www.verizon.com/about/privacy/full-privacy-policy
2026-09-25 (accessed) · company-disclosed
- https://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/25pdf/25-406_nmip.pdf
2026-06-04 · government
Used by: Verizon: enforcement and litigation; AT&T: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/732717/000073271726000120/t-20251231.htm
2025 · company-disclosed
Used by: AT&T: member count
- https://about.att.com/privacy/privacy-notice.html
2026-05-27 · company-disclosed
- https://www.fcc.gov/document/fcc-settles-att-vendor-cloud-breach
2024-09-17 · government
Used by: AT&T: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.courtlistener.com/docket/68936135/
2026-08-17 · court record
Used by: AT&T: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.telecomdatasettlement.com/
2026-04-23 · court record
Used by: AT&T: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1581760/000158176026000142/life360incq226mediarelea.htm
2026, 2026-08-10 · company-disclosed
Used by: Life360: member count; Life360: retail media revenue, basis of impressions (F14); Life360: data practices
- https://themarkup.org/privacy/2022/01/27/life360-says-it-will-stop-selling-precise-location-data
2022-01-27 · trade press
Used by: Life360: data practices
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1581760/000158176026000016/lifx-20251231.htm
2026-02 · company-disclosed
- https://www.classaction.org/news/life360-secretly-sells-users-geolocation-data-to-third-parties-class-action-claims
trade press
Used by: Life360: enforcement and litigation
- https://pditechnologies.com/news/pdi-acquires-gasbuddy/
2021 · company-disclosed
Used by: GasBuddy (PDI Technologies): member count
- https://www.gasbuddy.com/privacy
2024-11-25 · company-disclosed
Used by: GasBuddy (PDI Technologies): data practices; GasBuddy (PDI Technologies): third parties
- https://www.cstoredive.com/news/shell-acquires-fuel-rewards-from-pdi-technology/747204/
2025-05-06 · trade press
Used by: Shell (Fuel Rewards program): data practices
- https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/national/2025/04/23/821018.htm
2025-04-23 · trade press
Used by: Toyota Motor North America (Connected Analytic Services): data practices; Toyota Motor North America (Connected Analytic Services): third parties
- https://www.carcomplaints.com/news/2026/toyota-data-sharing-lawsuit.shtml
2025-12-02 · trade press
Used by: Toyota Motor North America (Connected Analytic Services): enforcement and litigation
- https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2025/07/data-brokers-are-selling-your-flight-information-cbp-and-ice
2025, 2025-07 · research or NGO report
Used by: Airlines Reporting Corporation (owned by U.S. airlines): member count; Airlines Reporting Corporation (owned by U.S. airlines): data practices; Airlines Reporting Corporation (owned by U.S. airlines): third parties; United Airlines (MileagePlus / Kinective Media): data practices
- https://www.404media.co/airlines-dont-want-you-to-know-they-sold-your-flight-data-to-dhs/
2025-06-10 · trade press
Used by: Airlines Reporting Corporation (owned by U.S. airlines): data practices
- https://liveandletsfly.com/arc-travel-intelligence-program/
2025-11-19 · trade press
Used by: Airlines Reporting Corporation (owned by U.S. airlines): data practices
- https://www.wyden.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/08262026wydenbrowngaoletterairlineprivacy.pdf
2026-08-26 · government
Used by: Airlines Reporting Corporation (owned by U.S. airlines): data practices
- https://onemileatatime.com/news/marriott-media-network-bonvoy/
2025 · trade press
Used by: Marriott International (Marriott Bonvoy): member count
- https://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/406611/marriott-international-launches-bespoke-retail-med.html
2025-06-12 · trade press
Used by: Marriott International (Marriott Bonvoy): data practices; Marriott International (Marriott Bonvoy): third parties
- https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2024/10/ftc-takes-action-against-marriott-starwood-over-multiple-data-breaches
2024-10-09 · government
Used by: Marriott International (Marriott Bonvoy): data practices; Marriott International (Marriott Bonvoy): enforcement and litigation
- https://www.alstonprivacy.com/suite-victory-marriott-finally-checks-out-of-court/
2025-06-03 · trade press
Used by: Marriott International (Marriott Bonvoy): enforcement and litigation
- https://info.omniapartners.com/hubfs/PUBLIC%20SECTOR/Supplier%20Information/Experian%20Information%20Solutions,%20Inc./consumerview-ps.pdf
undated · company-disclosed
Used by: Experian (Marketing Services / ConsumerView): member count; Experian (Marketing Services / ConsumerView): data practices; Experian (Marketing Services / ConsumerView): third parties
- https://ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2023/08/ftc-charges-experian-spamming-consumers-who-signed-company-accounts-marketing-emails-they-couldnt
2023-08 · government
Used by: Experian (Marketing Services / ConsumerView): data practices; Experian (Marketing Services / ConsumerView): enforcement and litigation
- https://www.consumerfinance.gov/enforcement/actions/experian-information-solutions-inc/
2026-03-13 · government
Used by: Experian (Marketing Services / ConsumerView): enforcement and litigation
- https://topclassactions.com/lawsuit-settlements/closed-settlements/115m-oracle-privacy-class-action-settlement/
2024 · trade press
Used by: Oracle Advertising (shut down 2024-09-30): member count
- https://www.cmswire.com/customer-experience/oracle-agrees-to-pay-115-million-to-settle-consumer-data-privacy-lawsuit/
2024-07 · trade press
Used by: Oracle Advertising (shut down 2024-09-30): data practices
- https://www.mediapost.com/publications/article/412807/appeals-court-endorses-oracle-privacy-settlement.html
2026-02-16 · trade press
Used by: Oracle Advertising (shut down 2024-09-30): enforcement and litigation
- https://www.hunton.com/privacy-and-cybersecurity-law-blog/calprivacy-reaches-settlement-with-ford-motor-company-over-ccpa-opt-out-right-violations
2026-03-05 · trade press
Used by: Ford Motor Company: data practices; Ford Motor Company: enforcement and litigation
- https://www.thedrum.com/news/2025/03/14/united-s-big-bet-how-kinective-media-turning-air-travel-commerce-powerhouse
2025 · trade press
Used by: United Airlines (MileagePlus / Kinective Media): member count
- https://www.marketingbrew.com/stories/2024/11/04/united-airline-ad-network-flying-high
2024-11-04 · trade press
Used by: United Airlines (MileagePlus / Kinective Media): data practices
- https://marketing.acxiom.com/rs/982-LRE-196/images/Acxiom%20Global%20Data.pdf
undated · company-disclosed
Used by: Acxiom (Omnicom): member count; Acxiom (Omnicom): data practices
- https://www.marketingdive.com/news/omnicom-ipg-deal-on-path-to-close-wednesday-following-eu-approval/806294/
2025-11-26 · trade press
Used by: Acxiom (Omnicom): data practices
- https://www.circlek.com/privacy-policy
2026-07-22 · company-disclosed
Used by: Circle K (Inner Circle): data practices; Circle K (Inner Circle): third parties
- https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/7-eleven-inc-redefines-the-shopper-experience-with-expansion-of-gulp-radio-one-of-north-americas-largest-commercial-radio-networks-302302121.html
2024, 2024-11-12 · company-disclosed
Used by: 7-Eleven Inc. (7Rewards / Gulp Media Network): member count; 7-Eleven Inc. (7Rewards / Gulp Media Network): data practices
- https://www.7-eleven.com/legal/consumer-privacy-notice
2025-06-11 · company-disclosed
Used by: 7-Eleven Inc. (7Rewards / Gulp Media Network): data practices; 7-Eleven Inc. (7Rewards / Gulp Media Network): third parties
- https://corporate.exxonmobil.com/global-legal-pages/privacy-policy
2026-09-25 (accessed) · company-disclosed
Used by: ExxonMobil (Rewards+): data practices; ExxonMobil (Rewards+): third parties
Screen time in apps 44
- https://homes.cs.washington.edu/~franzi/pdf/zannettou-tiktok-chi24.pdf
2024 · peer-reviewed
Used by: TikTok: F18 items per hour; TikTok: F21 telemetry, what is tracked; TikTok: fact in the app details; Instagram Reels: F18 items per hour
- https://www.tubefilter.com/2021/07/21/tiktok-recommendation-algorithm-wall-street-journal-guillaume-chaslot/
trade press
Used by: TikTok: F18 items per hour; TikTok: F21 telemetry, what is tracked
- https://ctprodstorageaccountp.blob.core.windows.net/prod-drupal-files/documents/resource/public/Carbon-impact-of-video-streaming.pdf
2021-06 · research or NGO report
Used by: TikTok: F15 phone power; TikTok: F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); Instagram Reels: F15 phone power; Instagram Reels: F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); Instagram (feed): F15 phone power; Instagram (feed): F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); Facebook: F15 phone power; Facebook: F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); YouTube Shorts: F15 phone power; YouTube Shorts: F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); YouTube (long-form, comparison): F15 phone power; YouTube (long-form, comparison): F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); YouTube (long-form, comparison): fact in the app details; Snapchat (Stories/Spotlight): F15 phone power; Snapchat (Stories/Spotlight): F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); Reddit: F15 phone power; Reddit: F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); X (Twitter): F15 phone power; X (Twitter): F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); Pinterest: F15 phone power; Pinterest: F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); Video streaming (Netflix-style, HD, average device mix): F30; Video streaming (Netflix-style, HD, average device mix): reported CO2e, reference; Video streaming (Netflix-style, HD, average device mix): fact in the item details; Upgrading an hour of streaming from HD to 4K (incremental only): fact in the item details; Home Wi-Fi router and modem, always on: F34
- https://blog.greenspector.com/en/social-media-2021/
2021-10-26 · vendor blog
Used by: TikTok: F15 phone power; TikTok: fact in the app details; Instagram Reels: F15 phone power; Instagram Reels: fact in the app details; Instagram (feed): F15 phone power; Facebook: F15 phone power; Facebook: fact in the app details; YouTube Shorts: F15 phone power; YouTube Shorts: fact in the app details; YouTube (long-form, comparison): F15 phone power; Snapchat (Stories/Spotlight): F15 phone power; Reddit: F15 phone power; Reddit: F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); Reddit: fact in the app details; X (Twitter): F15 phone power; Pinterest: F15 phone power
- https://web.archive.org/web/2022/https://greenspector.com/en/social-media-2021/
2021-10-26 · vendor blog
Used by: TikTok: F15 phone power; TikTok: fact in the app details; Instagram Reels: F15 phone power; Instagram Reels: fact in the app details; Instagram (feed): F15 phone power; Facebook: F15 phone power; Facebook: fact in the app details; YouTube Shorts: F15 phone power; YouTube Shorts: fact in the app details; YouTube (long-form, comparison): F15 phone power; Snapchat (Stories/Spotlight): F15 phone power; Reddit: F15 phone power; Reddit: F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); Reddit: fact in the app details; X (Twitter): F15 phone power; Pinterest: F15 phone power
- https://www.slashgear.com/1968580/tiktok-data-usage-per-hour/
2025-09-20 · trade press
Used by: TikTok: F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); YouTube Shorts: F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors)
- https://esim.holafly.com/research/apps-that-use-most-mobile-data/
2024-09-22 (tests Aug-Sep 2024), 2024-09 · vendor blog
Used by: TikTok: F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); Instagram Reels: F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); Instagram (feed): F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); Facebook: F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); YouTube Shorts: F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); YouTube (long-form, comparison): F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); Snapchat (Stories/Spotlight): F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); Snapchat (Stories/Spotlight): fact in the app details; Reddit: F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); X (Twitter): F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); Pinterest: F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); Pinterest: F21 telemetry, what is tracked
- https://sustainability.atmeta.com/asset/2025-environmental-data-index/
2025 (FY2024 data), 2025, 2025 (reporting year 2024) · company-disclosed
Used by: TikTok: F17 data center per user-hour; Instagram Reels: F17 data center per user-hour; Instagram Reels: data center carbon intensity, reference only; Instagram Reels: fact in the app details; Instagram (feed): F17 data center per user-hour; Instagram (feed): data center carbon intensity, reference only; Instagram (feed): fact in the app details; Facebook: F17 data center per user-hour; Facebook: data center carbon intensity, reference only; Facebook: fact in the app details; Water, data centers and AI: Meta data center water consumption; Water, data centers and AI: Meta data center water withdrawal; Water, data centers and AI: Meta water consumption embedded in purchased electricity; Water, data centers and AI: Meta embedded electricity water per kWh (derived: 72,207 ML / 18,423,634 MWh); Water, data centers and AI: Meta annual data center WUE; Water, data centers and AI: Meta data centers consumption / withdrawal (derived: 2,974 / 4,145); Water, local context: local context
- https://fortune.com/2024/12/13/tiktok-carbon-footprint-emissions-doomscrolling-greece-greenly/
2024-12-13 · trade press
Used by: TikTok: F17 data center per user-hour; TikTok: fact in the app details
- https://www.whistleout.com/CellPhones/Guides/social-media-ad-percentages
2025-11-12 · vendor blog
Used by: TikTok: F19 advertising share; Instagram Reels: F19 advertising share; Instagram (feed): F19 advertising share; Facebook: F19 advertising share; Snapchat (Stories/Spotlight): F19 advertising share; Reddit: F19 advertising share; X (Twitter): F19 advertising share; Pinterest: F19 advertising share; Pinterest: fact in the app details
- https://methodology.scope3.com/ad_tech_model
accessed 2026-09-25 (Criteo inputs from Criteo CSR 2021) · vendor blog
Used by: TikTok: F20 ad decisioning; Instagram Reels: F20 ad decisioning; Instagram (feed): F20 ad decisioning; Facebook: F20 ad decisioning; YouTube Shorts: F20 ad decisioning; YouTube (long-form, comparison): F20 ad decisioning; Snapchat (Stories/Spotlight): F20 ad decisioning; Reddit: F20 ad decisioning; X (Twitter): F20 ad decisioning; Pinterest: F20 ad decisioning
- https://www.digitalinformationworld.com/2021/07/to-test-algorithm-of-tiktok-wsj-created.html
2021-07 · trade press
Used by: TikTok: F21 telemetry, what is tracked; TikTok: fact in the app details
- https://www.tiktok.com/legal/page/us/privacy-policy/en
company-disclosed
Used by: TikTok: F21 telemetry, what is tracked
- https://bensmith.ghost.io/nyt-column-how-tiktok-keeps-you-watching/
trade press
Used by: TikTok: F21 telemetry, what is tracked
- https://sustainability.google/files/google-2026-environmental-report.pdf
2026-06-30 (FY2025 data), 2026-06-30, 2026 (reporting year 2025) · company-disclosed
Used by: TikTok: data center carbon intensity, reference only; YouTube Shorts: F17 data center per user-hour; YouTube Shorts: data center carbon intensity, reference only; YouTube Shorts: fact in the app details; YouTube (long-form, comparison): F17 data center per user-hour; YouTube (long-form, comparison): data center carbon intensity, reference only; Snapchat (Stories/Spotlight): data center carbon intensity, reference only; Reddit: data center carbon intensity, reference only; X (Twitter): data center carbon intensity, reference only; Pinterest: data center carbon intensity, reference only; Water, data centers and AI: Google total water consumption (data centers + offices); Water, data centers and AI: Google data center water consumption; Water, data centers and AI: Google data center water withdrawal; Water, data centers and AI: Google data center consumption per kWh of data center electricity (derived: 10,523 Mgal x 3.785 / 42,415,800 MWh); Water, data centers and AI: Google water replenished (share of freshwater consumption); Water, data centers and AI: Google Texas data center sites combined (Midlothian, Red Oak, Pflugerville, Wilmer); Water, data centers and AI: Google data centers consumption / withdrawal (derived: 10,523 / 13,562); Water, local context: local context
- https://blog.greenspector.com/en/what-is-the-environmental-footprint-of-social-networking-applications-2023/
2023-06-21 · vendor blog
Used by: TikTok: fact in the app details; Instagram (feed): fact in the app details; Facebook: fact in the app details
- https://datareportal.com/reports/digital-2026-global-overview-report
2025, 2025 (Similarweb Android data, Aug 2025), 2025-10 · industry report
Used by: TikTok: fact in the app details; Instagram Reels: F17 data center per user-hour; Instagram (feed): F17 data center per user-hour; Facebook: F17 data center per user-hour; YouTube Shorts: fact in the app details; YouTube Shorts: daily time per user; YouTube (long-form, comparison): F18 items per hour; YouTube (long-form, comparison): fact in the app details; YouTube (long-form, comparison): daily time per user
- https://www.slashgear.com/1118292/10-common-smartphone-apps-that-are-killing-your-data/
2022-11-28 · trade press
Used by: Instagram Reels: F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); Instagram (feed): F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); Facebook: F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors); YouTube (long-form, comparison): F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors)
- https://proceedings.mlsys.org/paper_files/paper/2022/hash/462211f67c7d858f663355eff93b745e-Abstract.html
2022 · peer-reviewed
Used by: Instagram Reels: F17 data center per user-hour; Instagram Reels: fact in the app details; Facebook: F17 data center per user-hour; Facebook: fact in the app details
- https://arxiv.org/abs/1906.03109
2019-06 (HPCA 2020), 2020 · peer-reviewed
Used by: Instagram Reels: F17 data center per user-hour; Instagram Reels: F21 telemetry, what is tracked; Instagram Reels: fact in the app details; Instagram (feed): F21 telemetry, what is tracked; Facebook: F17 data center per user-hour; Facebook: F21 telemetry, what is tracked; Facebook: fact in the app details
- https://transparency.meta.com/features/explaining-ranking/ig-reels-chaining/
company-disclosed
Used by: Instagram Reels: F21 telemetry, what is tracked; Instagram (feed): F21 telemetry, what is tracked; Facebook: F21 telemetry, what is tracked
- https://about.fb.com/news/2016/04/news-feed-fyi-more-articles-you-want-to-spend-time-viewing/
company-disclosed
Used by: Instagram Reels: F21 telemetry, what is tracked; Instagram (feed): F21 telemetry, what is tracked; Facebook: F21 telemetry, what is tracked
- https://investor.atmeta.com/investor-news/press-release-details/2026/Meta-Reports-Fourth-Quarter-and-Full-Year-2025-Results/default.aspx
2026-01 · company-disclosed
Used by: Instagram Reels: fact in the app details; Instagram (feed): fact in the app details; Facebook: fact in the app details
- https://www.vldb.org/pvldb/vol18/p4817-karpathiotakis.pdf
2025 · peer-reviewed
Used by: Instagram Reels: fact in the app details; Facebook: fact in the app details
- https://careerarc.com/blog/attention-span-on-social-media
vendor blog
Used by: Instagram (feed): F18 items per hour; Facebook: F18 items per hour
- https://www.digitalinformationworld.com/2025/06/how-many-daily-views-are-youtube-shorts.html
2025-06 · trade press
Used by: YouTube Shorts: F18 items per hour; YouTube Shorts: fact in the app details
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1652044/000165204426000018/goog-20251231.htm
2026-02 (FY2025) · company-disclosed
Used by: YouTube Shorts: F17 data center per user-hour; YouTube (long-form, comparison): F17 data center per user-hour
- https://blog.youtube/inside-youtube/our-big-bets-for-2025/
2025-02 · company-disclosed
Used by: YouTube Shorts: F17 data center per user-hour; YouTube (long-form, comparison): F17 data center per user-hour; YouTube (long-form, comparison): fact in the app details
- https://blog.youtube/inside-youtube/on-youtubes-recommendation-system/
company-disclosed
Used by: YouTube Shorts: F21 telemetry, what is tracked; YouTube (long-form, comparison): F21 telemetry, what is tracked
- https://research.google/pubs/deep-neural-networks-for-youtube-recommendations/
peer-reviewed
Used by: YouTube Shorts: F21 telemetry, what is tracked; YouTube (long-form, comparison): F21 telemetry, what is tracked
- https://www.bristol.ac.uk/news/2019/may/rethinking-digital-service-design-.html
2019-05 · research or NGO report
Used by: YouTube (long-form, comparison): fact in the app details
- https://www.firsty.app/help/general/snapchat-data-usage
undated, accessed 2026-09-25 · vendor blog
Used by: Snapchat (Stories/Spotlight): F16 data per hour (F3 replaces its per-GB factors)
- https://downloads.ctfassets.net/ngit5gcrb661/1EJ30ul3eUvQpyEyOmFa5q/8fecb808c5cab435000e1851742f4708/SNA0014_06292026_Citizen_Snap_Report_R4.7__1_.pdf
2026-06 (FY2025 data), 2026-06 · company-disclosed
Used by: Snapchat (Stories/Spotlight): F17 data center per user-hour; Snapchat (Stories/Spotlight): fact in the app details
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1564408/000156440826000013/snap-20251231.htm
2026-02 (FY2025), 2026-02 · company-disclosed
Used by: Snapchat (Stories/Spotlight): F17 data center per user-hour; Snapchat (Stories/Spotlight): fact in the app details
- https://values.snap.com/privacy/privacy-policy
company-disclosed
Used by: Snapchat (Stories/Spotlight): F21 telemetry, what is tracked
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1713445/000171344526000022/rddt-20251231.htm
2026-02 (FY2025), 2026-02 · company-disclosed
Used by: Reddit: F17 data center per user-hour; Reddit: F21 telemetry, what is tracked; Reddit: fact in the app details
- https://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1713445/000171344526000020/earningspressreleaseq425.htm
2026-02-05 · company-disclosed
Used by: Reddit: fact in the app details
- https://blog.x.com/engineering/en_us/topics/infrastructure/2021/processing-billions-of-events-in-real-time-at-twitter-
2021 · company-disclosed
Used by: X (Twitter): F17 data center per user-hour; X (Twitter): fact in the app details
- https://github.com/twitter/the-algorithm-ml/blob/main/projects/home/recap/FEATURES.md
2023 · company-disclosed
Used by: X (Twitter): F21 telemetry, what is tracked; X (Twitter): fact in the app details
- https://github.com/twitter/the-algorithm-ml/blob/main/projects/home/recap/README.md
2023-04-05 · company-disclosed
Used by: X (Twitter): F21 telemetry, what is tracked; X (Twitter): fact in the app details
- https://www.socialmediatoday.com/news/x-formerly-twitter-shares-active-usage-data/737374/
2025-01-14 · trade press
Used by: X (Twitter): fact in the app details
- https://assets.ctfassets.net/2pyx8rwuvz6x/3lJS17BPZxdUmhsfGdt0Nn/5e1ccdd37e63e9f29ffb38978ff3f825/Pinterest_2024_GHG_Verification_Statement.pdf
2025 (FY2024 data), 2025 · company-disclosed
Used by: Pinterest: F17 data center per user-hour; Pinterest: fact in the app details
- https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20250206083108/en/Pinterest-Announces-Fourth-Quarter-and-Full-Year-2024-Results-Delivers-First-Billion-Dollar-Revenue-Quarter
2025-02-06 · company-disclosed
Used by: Pinterest: F17 data center per user-hour
- https://www.confluent.io/events/kafka-summit-americas-2021/improving-logging-ingestion-quality-at-pinterest-fighting-data-corruption/
2021 · company-disclosed
Used by: Pinterest: F21 telemetry, what is tracked; Pinterest: fact in the app details
AI tasks 32
- https://arxiv.org/abs/2508.15734
2025-08-21 · company-disclosed
Used by: Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): F23 energy per unit; Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): F25 water; Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): reported CO2e, reference; Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): fact in the AI task details; Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): household reference points; Chatbot prompt with reasoning / thinking mode (o3, GPT-5 Thinking, DeepSeek-R1, Gemini Thinking): F25 water; Chatbot prompt with an uploaded document (about 10k tokens in; up to 100k): F25 water; Deep research query (ChatGPT / Gemini / Perplexity multi-step research report): F25 water; AI coding agent request (one typed instruction to Claude Code, Codex or Cursor agent mode): F25 water; AI coding agent session, median (Claude Code): F25 water; AI image generation (one image: ChatGPT Images, Gemini / Nano Banana, Midjourney, Stable Diffusion): F25 water; AI video generation (one short clip, about 5 to 8 s at 720p: Veo, Kling, Runway, Seedance, Sora): F25 water; AI video generation, per second of generated video: F25 water; AI search answer you did not ask for (Google AI Overviews, AI Mode, Bing Copilot answers): F25 water; AI search answer you did not ask for (Google AI Overviews, AI Mode, Bing Copilot answers): household reference points
- https://blog.samaltman.com/the-gentle-singularity
2025-06-10 · company-disclosed
Used by: Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): F23 energy per unit; Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): F25 water; Water, data centers and AI: Average ChatGPT query per OpenAI CEO (basis undisclosed)
- https://arxiv.org/abs/2509.20241
2025-09 (arXiv); Joule 2026 · peer-reviewed
Used by: Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): F23 energy per unit; Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): fact in the AI task details; Chatbot prompt with reasoning / thinking mode (o3, GPT-5 Thinking, DeepSeek-R1, Gemini Thinking): F23 energy per unit; Chatbot prompt with reasoning / thinking mode (o3, GPT-5 Thinking, DeepSeek-R1, Gemini Thinking): fact in the AI task details; Deep research query (ChatGPT / Gemini / Perplexity multi-step research report): F23 energy per unit
- https://arxiv.org/abs/2505.09598
2025-05-14 (v6 2025-11-24) · preprint
Used by: Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): F23 energy per unit; Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): F25 water; Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): reported CO2e, reference; Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): fact in the AI task details; Chatbot prompt with reasoning / thinking mode (o3, GPT-5 Thinking, DeepSeek-R1, Gemini Thinking): F23 energy per unit; Chatbot prompt with reasoning / thinking mode (o3, GPT-5 Thinking, DeepSeek-R1, Gemini Thinking): F25 water; Chatbot prompt with reasoning / thinking mode (o3, GPT-5 Thinking, DeepSeek-R1, Gemini Thinking): reported CO2e, reference; Chatbot prompt with reasoning / thinking mode (o3, GPT-5 Thinking, DeepSeek-R1, Gemini Thinking): fact in the AI task details; Chatbot prompt with an uploaded document (about 10k tokens in; up to 100k): F23 energy per unit
- https://www.technologyreview.com/2025/05/20/1116327/ai-energy-usage-climate-footprint-big-tech/
2025-05-20 · trade press
Used by: Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): F23 energy per unit; Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): F26 training amortization; Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): fact in the AI task details; Chatbot prompt with reasoning / thinking mode (o3, GPT-5 Thinking, DeepSeek-R1, Gemini Thinking): F23 energy per unit; Chatbot prompt with reasoning / thinking mode (o3, GPT-5 Thinking, DeepSeek-R1, Gemini Thinking): fact in the AI task details; AI image generation (one image: ChatGPT Images, Gemini / Nano Banana, Midjourney, Stable Diffusion): F23 energy per unit; AI image generation (one image: ChatGPT Images, Gemini / Nano Banana, Midjourney, Stable Diffusion): F24 generations per kept output; AI image generation (one image: ChatGPT Images, Gemini / Nano Banana, Midjourney, Stable Diffusion): fact in the AI task details; AI video generation (one short clip, about 5 to 8 s at 720p: Veo, Kling, Runway, Seedance, Sora): F23 energy per unit; AI video generation (one short clip, about 5 to 8 s at 720p: Veo, Kling, Runway, Seedance, Sora): F24 generations per kept output; AI search answer you did not ask for (Google AI Overviews, AI Mode, Bing Copilot answers): F23 energy per unit; AI video estimate: energy cross-reference, not used
- https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2542435123003653
2023-10-10 · peer-reviewed
Used by: Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): F23 energy per unit; AI search answer you did not ask for (Google AI Overviews, AI Mode, Bing Copilot answers): F23 energy per unit
- https://arxiv.org/abs/2304.03271
2023-04 (v5 2025-03-26); CACM 2025, v5 2025-03-26 (CACM 2025) · peer-reviewed
Used by: Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): F25 water; Chatbot prompt with reasoning / thinking mode (o3, GPT-5 Thinking, DeepSeek-R1, Gemini Thinking): F25 water; Chatbot prompt with an uploaded document (about 10k tokens in; up to 100k): F25 water; Deep research query (ChatGPT / Gemini / Perplexity multi-step research report): F25 water; AI coding agent request (one typed instruction to Claude Code, Codex or Cursor agent mode): F25 water; AI coding agent session, median (Claude Code): F25 water; AI image generation (one image: ChatGPT Images, Gemini / Nano Banana, Midjourney, Stable Diffusion): F25 water; AI video generation (one short clip, about 5 to 8 s at 720p: Veo, Kling, Runway, Seedance, Sora): F25 water; AI video generation, per second of generated video: F25 water; AI search answer you did not ask for (Google AI Overviews, AI Mode, Bing Copilot answers): F25 water; Water: Your year water line and methodology factors; Water, data centers and AI: US grid-average water consumption factor (WRI, used by Li et al. and the site); Water, data centers and AI: Share of cooling withdrawal that is evaporated (consumed); Water, data centers and AI: GPT-3 medium request, US average, on-site + off-site (4 Wh assumed); Water, data centers and AI: GPT-3 medium request, Arizona, on-site + off-site; Water, data centers and AI: GPT-3 medium request, Texas, on-site + off-site; Water, data centers and AI: ERCOT (Texas) grid-average water consumption factor; Water, data centers and AI: WECC Southwest (Arizona/New Mexico) grid-average factor; Water, data centers and AI: WECC Northwest (hydro-heavy) grid-average factor; Water, local context: local context
- https://mistral.ai/news/our-contribution-to-a-global-environmental-standard-for-ai
2025-07-22 · company-disclosed
Used by: Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): F25 water; Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): reported CO2e, reference; Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): fact in the AI task details
- https://github.com/meta-llama/llama-models/blob/main/models/llama3_1/MODEL_CARD.md
2024-07-23 · company-disclosed
Used by: Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): F26 training amortization
- https://arxiv.org/abs/2608.06733
2026-08 · preprint
Used by: Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): F26 training amortization; Deep research query (ChatGPT / Gemini / Perplexity multi-step research report): F23 energy per unit; AI coding agent request (one typed instruction to Claude Code, Codex or Cursor agent mode): F23 energy per unit
- https://techcrunch.com/2025/07/21/chatgpt-users-send-2-5-billion-prompts-a-day/
2025-07-21 · trade press
Used by: Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): F26 training amortization
- https://arxiv.org/abs/2104.10350
2021-04-21 · preprint
Used by: Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): F26 training amortization
- https://sustainability.google/google-2026-environmental-report/
2026 · company-disclosed
Used by: Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): fact in the AI task details
- https://www.theclimatebrink.com/p/the-real-energy-use-of-agentic-ai
2026-08-05 · researcher newsletter
Used by: Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): fact in the AI task details; Deep research query (ChatGPT / Gemini / Perplexity multi-step research report): fact in the AI task details; AI coding agent request (one typed instruction to Claude Code, Codex or Cursor agent mode): F23 energy per unit; AI coding agent request (one typed instruction to Claude Code, Codex or Cursor agent mode): reported CO2e, reference; AI coding agent request (one typed instruction to Claude Code, Codex or Cursor agent mode): F24 generations per kept output; AI coding agent request (one typed instruction to Claude Code, Codex or Cursor agent mode): fact in the AI task details
- https://googleblog.blogspot.com/2009/01/powering-google-search.html
company-disclosed
Used by: Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): household reference points; Chatbot prompt with reasoning / thinking mode (o3, GPT-5 Thinking, DeepSeek-R1, Gemini Thinking): household reference points; Chatbot prompt with an uploaded document (about 10k tokens in; up to 100k): household reference points; AI image generation (one image: ChatGPT Images, Gemini / Nano Banana, Midjourney, Stable Diffusion): household reference points; AI search answer you did not ask for (Google AI Overviews, AI Mode, Bing Copilot answers): household reference points
- https://limited.systems/articles/google-search-vs-chatgpt-emissions/
researcher newsletter
Used by: Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): household reference points; AI search answer you did not ask for (Google AI Overviews, AI Mode, Bing Copilot answers): household reference points
- https://www.iea.org/commentaries/the-carbon-footprint-of-streaming-video-fact-checking-the-headlines
2020-12-10 · government
Used by: Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): household reference points; Chatbot prompt with reasoning / thinking mode (o3, GPT-5 Thinking, DeepSeek-R1, Gemini Thinking): household reference points; Chatbot prompt with an uploaded document (about 10k tokens in; up to 100k): household reference points; Deep research query (ChatGPT / Gemini / Perplexity multi-step research report): household reference points; AI coding agent request (one typed instruction to Claude Code, Codex or Cursor agent mode): household reference points; AI video generation (one short clip, about 5 to 8 s at 720p: Veo, Kling, Runway, Seedance, Sora): household reference points; AI video generation, per second of generated video: household reference points; Video streaming (Netflix-style, HD, average device mix): F30; Video streaming (Netflix-style, HD, average device mix): reported CO2e, reference; Video streaming (Netflix-style, HD, average device mix): what is logged, item details; Video streaming (Netflix-style, HD, average device mix): fact in the item details; Upgrading an hour of streaming from HD to 4K (incremental only): F31; Upgrading an hour of streaming from HD to 4K (incremental only): what is logged, item details; Sending and reading one email: fact in the item details; Smartphone manufacturing, amortized per year of ownership: fact in the item details
- https://arxiv.org/abs/2311.16863
2023-11-28 (FAccT 2024) · peer-reviewed
Used by: Chatbot prompt (typical text: ChatGPT, Gemini, Claude, Copilot, Meta AI): household reference points; Chatbot prompt with reasoning / thinking mode (o3, GPT-5 Thinking, DeepSeek-R1, Gemini Thinking): household reference points; Chatbot prompt with an uploaded document (about 10k tokens in; up to 100k): household reference points; Deep research query (ChatGPT / Gemini / Perplexity multi-step research report): household reference points; AI coding agent request (one typed instruction to Claude Code, Codex or Cursor agent mode): household reference points; AI image generation (one image: ChatGPT Images, Gemini / Nano Banana, Midjourney, Stable Diffusion): F23 energy per unit; AI image generation (one image: ChatGPT Images, Gemini / Nano Banana, Midjourney, Stable Diffusion): reported CO2e, reference; AI image generation (one image: ChatGPT Images, Gemini / Nano Banana, Midjourney, Stable Diffusion): fact in the AI task details; AI image generation (one image: ChatGPT Images, Gemini / Nano Banana, Midjourney, Stable Diffusion): household reference points; AI video generation (one short clip, about 5 to 8 s at 720p: Veo, Kling, Runway, Seedance, Sora): household reference points; AI video generation, per second of generated video: household reference points
- https://hannahritchie.substack.com/p/ai-footprint-august-2025
2025-08-21 · researcher newsletter
Used by: Deep research query (ChatGPT / Gemini / Perplexity multi-step research report): fact in the AI task details
- https://simonpcouch.com/blog/2026-01-20-cc-impact/
2026-01-20 · researcher newsletter
Used by: AI coding agent session, median (Claude Code): F23 energy per unit; AI coding agent session, median (Claude Code): F24 generations per kept output; AI coding agent session, median (Claude Code): fact in the AI task details
- https://huggingface.co/spaces/AIEnergyScore/Leaderboard/discussions/3
2025-02-17 · research or NGO report
Used by: AI image generation (one image: ChatGPT Images, Gemini / Nano Banana, Midjourney, Stable Diffusion): F23 energy per unit
- https://arxiv.org/abs/2311.12131
2023-11 (EMNLP 2023) · peer-reviewed
Used by: AI image generation (one image: ChatGPT Images, Gemini / Nano Banana, Midjourney, Stable Diffusion): F24 generations per kept output
- https://arxiv.org/abs/2607.04553
2026-07-05 · preprint
Used by: AI video generation (one short clip, about 5 to 8 s at 720p: Veo, Kling, Runway, Seedance, Sora): F23 energy per unit; AI video generation (one short clip, about 5 to 8 s at 720p: Veo, Kling, Runway, Seedance, Sora): fact in the AI task details; AI video generation, per second of generated video: F23 energy per unit
- https://sustainableaigroup.com/lightscameracarbon
2026-07-07 · research or NGO report
Used by: AI video generation (one short clip, about 5 to 8 s at 720p: Veo, Kling, Runway, Seedance, Sora): F23 energy per unit
- https://arxiv.org/abs/2509.19222
2025-09-23 · preprint
Used by: AI video generation (one short clip, about 5 to 8 s at 720p: Veo, Kling, Runway, Seedance, Sora): F23 energy per unit; AI video generation (one short clip, about 5 to 8 s at 720p: Veo, Kling, Runway, Seedance, Sora): fact in the AI task details; AI video generation, per second of generated video: F23 energy per unit; AI video generation, per second of generated video: fact in the AI task details; AI video estimate: energy cross-reference, not used
- https://www.carbontrust.com/news-and-insights/news/new-report-explores-path-to-better-understand-and-manage-ai-video-emissions
2026-06-23 · research or NGO report
Used by: AI video generation (one short clip, about 5 to 8 s at 720p: Veo, Kling, Runway, Seedance, Sora): reported CO2e, reference; AI video generation (one short clip, about 5 to 8 s at 720p: Veo, Kling, Runway, Seedance, Sora): F24 generations per kept output; AI video generation (one short clip, about 5 to 8 s at 720p: Veo, Kling, Runway, Seedance, Sora): fact in the AI task details; AI video generation, per second of generated video: reported CO2e, reference
- https://invideo.io/faq/how-many-ai-video-generations-do-you-need-per-usable/
2026-07-27 · vendor blog
Used by: AI video generation (one short clip, about 5 to 8 s at 720p: Veo, Kling, Runway, Seedance, Sora): F24 generations per kept output; AI video generation, per second of generated video: F24 generations per kept output
- https://help.openai.com/en/articles/20001152-what-to-know-about-the-sora-discontinuation
2026-03-24 · company-disclosed
Used by: AI video generation (one short clip, about 5 to 8 s at 720p: Veo, Kling, Runway, Seedance, Sora): fact in the AI task details
- https://arxiv.org/abs/2505.07615
2025-05 (v2 2025-07-16) · preprint
Used by: AI music or voice generation (Suno, Udio, ElevenLabs): F23 energy per unit; AI music or voice generation (Suno, Udio, ElevenLabs): fact in the AI task details
- https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-do-googles-ai-answers-cost-the-environment/
2024-06-11 · trade press
Used by: AI search answer you did not ask for (Google AI Overviews, AI Mode, Bing Copilot answers): F23 energy per unit; AI search answer you did not ask for (Google AI Overviews, AI Mode, Bing Copilot answers): fact in the AI task details
- https://energydigital.com/news/what-is-the-true-energy-cost-of-google-searchs-ai-overview
2026-06-02 · trade press
Used by: AI search answer you did not ask for (Google AI Overviews, AI Mode, Bing Copilot answers): F23 energy per unit; AI search answer you did not ask for (Google AI Overviews, AI Mode, Bing Copilot answers): fact in the AI task details
- https://arxiv.org/abs/2407.16894
2024-07 (updated 2025-01) · preprint
Used by: AI search answer you did not ask for (Google AI Overviews, AI Mode, Bing Copilot answers): fact in the AI task details
AI video estimate 28
- https://www.kapwing.com/resources/the-tiktok-ai-slop-report/
2026-05 data; published 2026-06-09, 2026-06-09 · vendor blog
Used by: AI video estimate: F28 AI share of feed; AI video estimate: downstream effects, research only
- https://www.kapwing.com/blog/ai-slop-report-the-global-rise-of-low-quality-ai-videos/
2025-10 data; published 2025-11-28, 2025-11-28 · vendor blog
Used by: AI video estimate: F28 AI share of feed; AI video estimate: F29 production inputs; AI video estimate: incentive evidence
- https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2025/aug/11/cat-soap-operas-and-babies-trapped-in-space-the-ai-slop-taking-over-youtube
2025-08-11 · trade press
Used by: AI video estimate: F28 AI share of feed
- https://apicciano.commons.gc.cuny.edu/2025/08/19/washington-post-making-cash-off-ai-slop-the-surreal-video-business-taking-over-the-web/
2025-08-18 · trade press
Used by: AI video estimate: F28 AI share of feed; AI video estimate: F29 production inputs; AI video estimate: incentive evidence
- https://newsroom.tiktok.com/helping-people-spot-and-understand-aigc-on-tiktok
2026-07-10 · company-disclosed
Used by: AI video estimate: F28 AI share of feed
- https://www.elev8or.io/blog/tiktok-creator-rewards-rpm-2026
2026 · vendor blog
Used by: AI video estimate: F29 payout per view
- https://www.tubebuddy.com/blog/youtube-shorts-pay-1000000-views/
2026-06-22 · creator self-report
Used by: AI video estimate: F29 payout per view
- https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/12504220?hl=en
2026-06-22 · company-disclosed
Used by: AI video estimate: F29 payout per view
- https://postplanify.com/blog/how-much-does-facebook-reels-pay-per-1000-views
2026 · vendor blog
Used by: AI video estimate: F29 payout per view
- https://www.404media.co/where-facebooks-ai-slop-comes-from/
2024-08-06 · trade press
Used by: AI video estimate: F29 payout per view; AI video estimate: incentive evidence
- https://www.npr.org/2025/08/28/nx-s1-5493485/ai-slop-videos-youtube-tiktok
2025-08-28 · trade press
Used by: AI video estimate: F29 production inputs; AI video estimate: incentive evidence
- https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00146-026-03254-9
2026-08-12 · peer-reviewed
Used by: AI video estimate: F29 production inputs; AI video estimate: incentive evidence; AI video estimate: downstream effects, research only
- https://theconversation.com/side-job-self-employed-high-paid-behind-the-ai-slop-flooding-tiktok-and-facebook-237638
2024 · trade press
Used by: AI video estimate: F29 production inputs; AI video estimate: incentive evidence
- https://www.404media.co/ai-slop-is-a-brute-force-attack-on-the-algorithms-that-control-reality/
2025-03-17 · trade press
Used by: AI video estimate: F29 production inputs
- https://poppify.ai/research/real-cost-ai-video-generation
2026-06-20 · vendor blog
Used by: AI video estimate: F29 production inputs
- https://techcrunch.com/2024/04/27/creators-of-sora-powered-short-explain-ai-generated-videos-strengths-and-limitations/
2024-04-27 · trade press
Used by: AI video estimate: F29 production inputs
- https://admanage.ai/blog/average-tiktok-views
2025 · vendor blog
Used by: AI video estimate: F29 production inputs
- https://www.socialinsider.io/social-media-benchmarks/tiktok
2025 · vendor blog
Used by: AI video estimate: F29 production inputs
- https://fortune.com/2025/12/30/ai-slop-faceless-youtube-accounts-adavia-davis-user-generated-content/
2025-12-30 · trade press
Used by: AI video estimate: F29 production inputs
- https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/1311392?hl=en
2025-07-15 · company-disclosed
Used by: AI video estimate: incentive evidence
- https://thenextweb.com/news/youtube-ai-slop-crackdown-faceless-creators-collateral-damage
2026-01 · trade press
Used by: AI video estimate: incentive evidence
- https://about.fb.com/news/2026/03/rewarding-original-creators-on-facebook/
2026-03-13 · company-disclosed
Used by: AI video estimate: incentive evidence
- https://techcrunch.com/2025/07/14/following-youtube-meta-announces-crackdown-on-unoriginal-facebook-content
2026-03-13 · trade press
Used by: AI video estimate: incentive evidence
- https://newsroom.tiktok.com/introducing-the-new-creator-rewards-program?lang=en
2024-03-18 · company-disclosed
Used by: AI video estimate: incentive evidence
- https://newsroom.tiktok.com/en-us/how-tiktok-recommends-videos-for-you
2020-06-18 · company-disclosed
Used by: AI video estimate: downstream effects, research only
- https://arxiv.org/abs/2503.20231
2025-03-26 · preprint
Used by: AI video estimate: downstream effects, research only
- https://www.techtimes.com/articles/320282/20260713/tiktok-has-labeled-3-billion-ai-videos-here-what-research-says-they-miss.htm
2026-07-13 · trade press
Used by: AI video estimate: downstream effects, research only
- https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-024-07566-y
2024-07-24 · peer-reviewed
Used by: AI video estimate: downstream effects, research only
Everyday technology 67
- https://about.netflix.com/en/news/the-true-climate-impact-of-streaming
2021-06-10 · company-disclosed
Used by: Video streaming (Netflix-style, HD, average device mix): reported CO2e, reference; Upgrading an hour of streaming from HD to 4K (incremental only): F31; Upgrading an hour of streaming from HD to 4K (incremental only): reported CO2e, reference; Upgrading an hour of streaming from HD to 4K (incremental only): fact in the item details
- https://variety.com/2019/tv/news/netflix-cindy-holland-subscribers-watch-average-two-hours-day-1203159868/
trade press
Used by: Video streaming (Netflix-style, HD, average device mix): typical usage
- https://about.netflix.com/en/news/what-the-latest-research-on-streaming-emissions-tells-us
2023-03-29 · company-disclosed
Used by: Video streaming (Netflix-style, HD, average device mix): fact in the item details
- https://sustainablewebdesign.org/estimating-digital-emissions/
2024 · research or NGO report
Used by: Upgrading an hour of streaming from HD to 4K (incremental only): F31; Music streaming (Spotify-style audio): F32; Downloading one large console game (87 GB): F33; Smart TV automatic content recognition (ACR): F36; Phone operating-system telemetry while idle: F40; Loading one web page (incl. a restaurant QR-code menu): F38; Turn-by-turn phone navigation (Google Maps style): F39
- https://www.iea-4e.org/wp-content/uploads/publications/2019/01/09k_-_Smart_speakers_and_video_streaming_devices.pdf
2019-08 · research or NGO report
Used by: Music streaming (Spotify-style audio): F32; Smart speaker, always listening (per day): F34; Smart speaker, always listening (per day): what is logged, item details; Smart speaker, always listening (per day): fact in the item details; TV kept awake for smart-speaker voice control (incremental standby): F34; TV kept awake for smart-speaker voice control (incremental standby): fact in the item details; Pay-TV set-top box or streaming stick, always on: F34
- https://theconversation.com/as-spotify-moves-to-video-the-environmental-footprint-of-music-streaming-hits-the-high-notes-259939
2025-07 · trade press
Used by: Music streaming (Spotify-style audio): F32
- https://podnews.net/press-release/spotify-video-environment
2025-06 · vendor blog
Used by: Music streaming (Spotify-style audio): reported CO2e, reference; Music streaming (Spotify-style audio): fact in the item details
- https://screenrant.com/spotify-high-quality-audio-320kbps-enable-how/
trade press
Used by: Music streaming (Spotify-style audio): what is logged, item details
- https://www.nintendolife.com/guides/switch-xbox-ps5-power-consumption-comparison-how-energy-efficient-is-nintendo-switch
2024 · trade press
Used by: Local gaming session (console or PC, device only): F33
- https://www.vgchartz.com/article/445875/digital-foundry-dives-into-the-xbox-series-x-thermal-and-power-consumption/
2020-11 · trade press
Used by: Local gaming session (console or PC, device only): F33
- https://www.tomsguide.com/news/ps5-vs-xbox-series-x-with-great-power-comes-greater-electric-bills
2020 · trade press
Used by: Local gaming session (console or PC, device only): F33
- https://arxiv.org/pdf/2608.19040
2026-08-20 · preprint
Used by: Local gaming session (console or PC, device only): F33; Local gaming session (console or PC, device only): what is logged, item details; Local gaming session (console or PC, device only): fact in the item details; Downloading one large console game (87 GB): F33; Downloading one large console game (87 GB): what is logged, item details; Downloading one large console game (87 GB): typical usage; Downloading one large console game (87 GB): fact in the item details; Cloud gaming (GeForce Now / Xbox Cloud style), excluding home client: F33; Cloud gaming (GeForce Now / Xbox Cloud style), excluding home client: reported CO2e, reference; Cloud gaming (GeForce Now / Xbox Cloud style), excluding home client: typical usage; Cloud gaming (GeForce Now / Xbox Cloud style), excluding home client: fact in the item details; Smartphone manufacturing, amortized per year of ownership: F42
- https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3401335.3401366
2020 · peer-reviewed
Used by: Local gaming session (console or PC, device only): fact in the item details; Cloud gaming (GeForce Now / Xbox Cloud style), excluding home client: what is logged, item details
- https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jiec.12048
2013 · peer-reviewed
Used by: Downloading one large console game (87 GB): F33
- https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jiec.12181
2015 · peer-reviewed
Used by: Downloading one large console game (87 GB): fact in the item details
- https://greengaming.lbl.gov/cloud-gaming
2019-2020 · government
Used by: Cloud gaming (GeForce Now / Xbox Cloud style), excluding home client: F33; Cloud gaming (GeForce Now / Xbox Cloud style), excluding home client: fact in the item details
- https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/10200730/1/IMC_2024___ACR_Tracking_on_Smart_TVs__Camera_ready_.pdf
2024-11 · peer-reviewed
Used by: Smart TV automatic content recognition (ACR): F36; Smart TV automatic content recognition (ACR): event count, What's being logged; Smart TV automatic content recognition (ACR): fact in the item details
- https://www.ftc.gov/business-guidance/blog/2017/02/what-vizio-was-doing-behind-tv-screen
government
Used by: Smart TV automatic content recognition (ACR): event count, What's being logged
- https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2017/02/vizio-pay-22-million-ftc-state-new-jersey-settle-charges-it-collected-viewing-histories-11-million
2017-02-06 · government
Used by: Smart TV automatic content recognition (ACR): fact in the item details
- https://www.texasattorneygeneral.gov/news/releases/attorney-general-paxton-sues-five-major-tv-companies-including-some-ties-ccp-spying-texans
2025-12-15 · government
Used by: Smart TV automatic content recognition (ACR): fact in the item details
- https://www.texasattorneygeneral.gov/news/releases/attorney-general-paxton-secures-major-agreement-samsung-ensure-texans-are-protected-smart-tvs
2026-02-26 · government
Used by: Smart TV automatic content recognition (ACR): fact in the item details
- https://www.texasattorneygeneral.gov/news/releases/attorney-general-ken-paxton-secures-major-agreement-lg-protect-texans-privacy-and-stop-data-being
2026-05-11 · government
Used by: Smart TV automatic content recognition (ACR): fact in the item details
- https://www.the-ambient.com/explainers/smart-home-energy-use-costs-bills-2778/
2020s · trade press
Used by: Smart speaker, always listening (per day): F34
- https://www.cbc.ca/technology/technology-blog/2009/01/the_environmental_cost_of_a_go.html
2009-01 · trade press
Used by: Smart speaker, always listening (per day): fact in the item details
- https://www.nrdc.org/sites/default/files/residential-network-IP.pdf
2013-06 · research or NGO report
Used by: Home Wi-Fi router and modem, always on: F34; Home Wi-Fi router and modem, always on: typical usage; Home Wi-Fi router and modem, always on: fact in the item details
- https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:32023R0826
2023-04 · government
Used by: Home Wi-Fi router and modem, always on: fact in the item details; Video doorbell or camera uploading clips to the cloud: F35
- https://energy-efficiency.us/wp-content/uploads/2025/09/US-STB_2024-Report-1.pdf
2025-09-05 · industry report
Used by: Pay-TV set-top box or streaming stick, always on: F34; Pay-TV set-top box or streaming stick, always on: fact in the item details
- https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2020/05/20/2020-09988/energy-conservation-program-energy-conservation-standards-for-external-power-supplies
2020-05-20, 2020-05-20 (arithmetic: 0.1 W x 8,760 h = 0.876 kWh) · government
Used by: Phone charger left plugged in with nothing attached: F34; Phone charger left plugged in with nothing attached: fact in the item details
- https://thepublicsradio.org/episode/does-my-charger-still-use-power-when-its-not-connected-to-a-phone/
2020s · trade press
Used by: Phone charger left plugged in with nothing attached: F34
- https://support.google.com/googlehome/answer/9245832?hl=en
2026-09-25 · company-disclosed
Used by: Video doorbell or camera uploading clips to the cloud: F35; Video doorbell or camera uploading clips to the cloud: what is logged, item details; Video doorbell or camera uploading clips to the cloud: fact in the item details
- https://ring.com/support/articles/1nce1/Understanding-and-Adjusting-Your-Video-Storage-Time
2026-09-25 · company-disclosed
Used by: Video doorbell or camera uploading clips to the cloud: F35; Video doorbell or camera uploading clips to the cloud: typical usage
- https://justsmarter.net/all-about-ring-doorbell-power-consumption/
2020s · trade press
Used by: Video doorbell or camera uploading clips to the cloud: F35
- https://www.dreametech.com/blogs/blog/energy-and-water-audit-of-robot-vacuum
2020s · vendor blog
Used by: Robot vacuum with docking station: F34; Robot vacuum with docking station: fact in the item details
- https://www.gadgetreview.com/that-300-robot-vacuum-might-be-costing-you-100-extra-a-year
2020s · trade press
Used by: Robot vacuum with docking station: F34
- https://www.scss.tcd.ie/doug.leith/apple_google.pdf
2021-03 · research or NGO report
Used by: Phone operating-system telemetry while idle: F40; Phone operating-system telemetry while idle: event count, What's being logged; Phone operating-system telemetry while idle: fact in the item details
- https://www.dre.vanderbilt.edu/~schmidt/PDF/google-data-collection.pdf
2018-08-15 · research or NGO report
Used by: Phone operating-system telemetry while idle: F40; Background location access by apps and OS: F40; Background location access by apps and OS: event count, What's being logged; Background location access by apps and OS: fact in the item details
- https://www.cmu.edu/news/stories/archives/2015/march/privacy-nudge.html
2015-03 · research or NGO report
Used by: Background location access by apps and OS: F40; Background location access by apps and OS: event count, What's being logged
- https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4231573
2015 · preprint
Used by: Background location access by apps and OS: fact in the item details
- https://www.ic.unicamp.br/~oliveira/doc/MHCI2014_An-in-situ-study-of-mobile-phone-notifications.pdf
2014 · peer-reviewed
Used by: Push notifications received: F40; Push notifications received: event count, What's being logged; Push notifications received: fact in the item details
- https://developer.apple.com/library/archive/documentation/NetworkingInternet/Conceptual/RemoteNotificationsPG/CreatingtheNotificationPayload.html
n.d. · company-disclosed
Used by: Push notifications received: F40
- https://www.businessofapps.com/marketplace/push-notifications/research/push-notifications-statistics/
trade press
Used by: Push notifications received: event count, What's being logged; Push notifications received: typical usage
- https://www.cs.columbia.edu/~nieh/teaching/e6998_s13/papers/eprof_eurosys2012.pdf
2012-04 · peer-reviewed
Used by: Ads and analytics SDKs inside free apps: not modeled, item details only
- https://almanac.httparchive.org/en/2025/third-parties
2025 · research or NGO report
Used by: Ads and analytics SDKs inside free apps: what is logged, item details; Loading one web page (incl. a restaurant QR-code menu): what is logged, item details; Loading one web page (incl. a restaurant QR-code menu): fact in the item details
- https://www.networkworld.com/article/2187481/free-apps-kill-smartphone-battery-life.html
2012 · trade press
Used by: Ads and analytics SDKs inside free apps: fact in the item details
- https://www.cloudcarbonfootprint.org/docs/methodology/
2026-09-25 · research or NGO report
Used by: Cloud photo and video backup (Google Photos / iCloud style): F37; Email storage, the 'forever inbox': F37
- https://blog.google/products/photos/storage-changes/
2020-11-11 · company-disclosed
Used by: Cloud photo and video backup (Google Photos / iCloud style): what is logged, item details; Cloud photo and video backup (Google Photos / iCloud style): typical usage; Cloud photo and video backup (Google Photos / iCloud style): fact in the item details
- https://9to5google.com/2019/07/24/google-photos-billion-users/
2019-07-24 · trade press
Used by: Cloud photo and video backup (Google Photos / iCloud style): fact in the item details
- https://support.google.com/googleone/answer/9312312
company-disclosed
Used by: Email storage, the 'forever inbox': typical usage
- https://almanac.httparchive.org/en/2025/page-weight
2025 · research or NGO report
Used by: Loading one web page (incl. a restaurant QR-code menu): F38; Loading one web page (incl. a restaurant QR-code menu): fact in the item details
- https://yohomobile.com/en/data-usage-guide-google-maps-road-trip
2025 · vendor blog
Used by: Turn-by-turn phone navigation (Google Maps style): F39; Turn-by-turn phone navigation (Google Maps style): what is logged, item details
- https://batteryspotlight.com/how-much-battery-does-google-maps-use/
2020s · trade press
Used by: Turn-by-turn phone navigation (Google Maps style): F39
- https://www.eskimo.travel/en/blog/how-much-data-does-google-maps-use
2026 · vendor blog
Used by: Turn-by-turn phone navigation (Google Maps style): fact in the item details
- https://developer.uber.com/docs/guest-rides/references/api/webhooks/driver-location
2026-09-25 · company-disclosed
Used by: Ride-hailing trip tracking: not modeled, item details only; Ride-hailing trip tracking: what is logged, item details
- https://www.businessofapps.com/data/tinder-statistics/
2026 · trade press
Used by: Dating-app swiping (Tinder style): not modeled, item details only; Dating-app swiping (Tinder style): what is logged, item details; Dating-app swiping (Tinder style): fact in the item details
- https://doi.org/10.3390/su18104900
2026 · peer-reviewed
Used by: Returning an online purchase: reported CO2e, reference
- https://itgoesforward.com/articles/reduce-co2-emissions-ecommerce-returns
2020s · vendor blog
Used by: Returning an online purchase: reported CO2e, reference
- https://www.optoro.com/returns-news/the-unsustainable-cost-of-free-returns/
2022 · vendor blog
Used by: Returning an online purchase: fact in the item details
- https://digiconomist.net/bitcoin-energy-consumption/
2026-09-25 · research or NGO report
Used by: One on-chain Bitcoin transaction (average allocation): not shown, research only; Holding $50 of Bitcoin for one year (holdings allocation): not shown, research only
- https://www.jbs.cam.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/2025-04-cambridge-digital-mining-industry-report.pdf
2025-04 · research or NGO report
Used by: One on-chain Bitcoin transaction (average allocation): not shown, research only; Holding $50 of Bitcoin for one year (holdings allocation): not shown, research only
- https://api.blockchain.info/charts/n-transactions?timespan=1year&format=json
2026-09-25 · market data
Used by: One on-chain Bitcoin transaction (average allocation): not shown, research only
- https://bitcoinmagazine.com/business/bitcoin-energy-per-transaction-metric-is-misleading
2020s · trade press
Used by: One on-chain Bitcoin transaction (average allocation): not shown, research only
- https://api.coingecko.com/api/v3/simple/price?ids=bitcoin&vs_currencies=usd&include_market_cap=true
2026-09-25 · market data
Used by: Holding $50 of Bitcoin for one year (holdings allocation): not shown, research only
- https://arxiv.org/pdf/2111.06477
2021-11 · preprint
Used by: Holding $50 of Bitcoin for one year (holdings allocation): not shown, research only
- https://www.apple.com/environment/pdf/products/iphone/iPhone_18_Pro_and_iPhone_18_Pro_Max_PER_Sept2026.pdf
2026-09-09 · company-disclosed
Used by: Smartphone manufacturing, amortized per year of ownership: F42; Smartphone manufacturing, amortized per year of ownership: reported CO2e, reference; Smartphone manufacturing, amortized per year of ownership: typical usage; Smartphone manufacturing, amortized per year of ownership: fact in the item details
- https://www.apple.com/environment/pdf/products/iphone/iPhone_16_and_iPhone_16_Plus_PER_Sept2024.pdf
2024-09 · company-disclosed
Used by: Smartphone manufacturing, amortized per year of ownership: F42
- https://www.apple.com/environment/pdf/products/iphone/iPhone_17_PER_Sept2025.pdf
2025-09 · company-disclosed
Used by: Smartphone manufacturing, amortized per year of ownership: F42
- https://www.samsung.com/global/sustainability/landing_hub-file/AZUXQCVKIiwALYMV/Galaxy_S25_Environmental_Report_EN.pdf
2025-01-22 · company-disclosed
Used by: Smartphone manufacturing, amortized per year of ownership: F42; Smartphone manufacturing, amortized per year of ownership: reported CO2e, reference; Smartphone manufacturing, amortized per year of ownership: fact in the item details
Water 66
- https://files.wri.org/d8/s3fs-public/guidance-calculating-water-use-embedded-purchased-electricity_0.pdf
2020-01 (web 2020-02-27) · research or NGO report
Used by: Water: Your year water line and methodology factors; Water, data centers and AI: US grid-average water consumption factor (WRI, used by Li et al. and the site); Water, data centers and AI: US generation water consumption factor, natural gas (WRI/thinkstep, gal/kWh x 3.785); Water, data centers and AI: US generation water consumption factor, hard coal (WRI/thinkstep, gal/kWh x 3.785); Water, data centers and AI: US generation water consumption factor, nuclear (WRI/thinkstep, gal/kWh x 3.785); Water, data centers and AI: US generation water consumption factor, hydropower (WRI/thinkstep, gal/kWh x 3.785); Water, data centers and AI: US generation water consumption factor, geothermal (WRI/thinkstep, gal/kWh x 3.785); Water, data centers and AI: US generation water consumption factor, solar PV (WRI/thinkstep, gal/kWh x 3.785); Water, data centers and AI: US generation water consumption factor, wind (WRI/thinkstep, gal/kWh x 3.785); Water, data centers and AI: ERCOT (Texas) grid-average water consumption factor; Water, data centers and AI: WECC Southwest (Arizona/New Mexico) grid-average factor; Water, data centers and AI: WECC Northwest (hydro-heavy) grid-average factor; Water, local context: local context
- https://eta-publications.lbl.gov/sites/default/files/2024-12/lbnl-2024-united-states-data-center-energy-usage-report_1.pdf
2024-12 · government
Used by: Water: Your year water line and methodology factors; Water, data centers and AI: US data centers, direct (on-site) water consumption; Water, data centers and AI: US data centers, direct water consumption, 2014; Water, data centers and AI: US data centers, indirect water consumed at power plants for their 176 TWh; Water, data centers and AI: US data center electricity, indirect water intensity; Water, data centers and AI: US electricity average water consumption intensity (LBNL/Siddik method); Water, data centers and AI: US data centers, average site WUE; Water, data centers and AI: US hyperscale data centers, aggregate median site WUE (modeled); Water, water cycle: water cycle; Water, local context: local context
- https://www.twdb.texas.gov/waterplanning/waterusesurvey/dashboard/2024%20Texas%20Water%20Use%20Estimates%20Summary.pdf
2026-08-04 · government
Used by: Water, scale reference: Texas total water use, all sectors, 2024 (TWDB)
- https://www.twdb.texas.gov/waterplanning/waterusesurvey/dashboard/2023%20Texas%20Water%20Use%20Estimates%20Summary.pdf
2025-08-07 · government
Used by: Water, scale reference: Texas total water use, all sectors, 2024 (TWDB)
- https://www.twdb.texas.gov/waterplanning/waterusesurvey/dashboard/2022%20Texas%20Water%20Use%20Estimates%20Summary.pdf
2025-01-09 · government
Used by: Water, scale reference: Texas total water use, all sectors, 2024 (TWDB)
- https://texaslivingwaters.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/EvaporationPaper.pdf
2014 (Journal of Hydrology 510:1-9; online 2013-12-18) · peer-reviewed
Used by: Water, scale reference: Evaporation from 3,415 Texas reservoirs, long-term mean (gross); Water, scale reference: Texas reservoir evaporation net of precipitation on reservoir surfaces (derived); Water, scale reference: Possum Kingdom Reservoir (Brazos basin) simulated evaporation
- https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0022169413009086
2014 · peer-reviewed
Used by: Water, scale reference: Evaporation from 3,415 Texas reservoirs, long-term mean (gross)
- https://engineering.tamu.edu/news/2024/04/every-drop-counts-new-algorithm-tracks-texas-daily-reservoir-evaporation-rates.html
2024-05-08 · government
Used by: Water, scale reference: Evaporation from 3,415 Texas reservoirs, long-term mean (gross)
- https://waterdatafortexas.org/lake-evaporation-rainfall/api/quads/710/yearly
accessed 2026-09-25 · government
Used by: Water, scale reference: Lake Travis evaporation, average day (derived from TWDB quadrangle rates)
- https://waterdatafortexas.org/lake-evaporation-rainfall/about
accessed 2026-09-25 · government
Used by: Water, scale reference: Lake Travis evaporation, average day (derived from TWDB quadrangle rates)
- https://waterdatafortexas.org/reservoirs/individual/travis
2026-09-25 · government
Used by: Water, scale reference: Lake Travis evaporation, average day (derived from TWDB quadrangle rates)
- https://www.kvue.com/article/weather/texas-drought/lcra-highland-lakes-evaporation/269-dd60b856-779e-4784-b6f3-4421099f073d
2024 (about August; page blocked, date not confirmed) · trade press
Used by: Water, scale reference: Highland Lakes (LCRA system incl. Travis and Buchanan) evaporation per year
- https://cbsaustin.com/weather/weather-blog/the-biggest-draw-on-lake-travis-water-cant-be-controlled
2024-06-18 · trade press
Used by: Water, scale reference: Highland Lakes (LCRA system incl. Travis and Buchanan) evaporation per year
- https://texaswaternewsroom.org/articles/improved_reservoir_evaporation_data_informs_water_supply_management.html
2024-10-09 · government
Used by: Water, scale reference: Highland Lakes (LCRA system incl. Travis and Buchanan) evaporation per year; Water, local context: local context
- https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-022-31125-6
2022-06-28 · peer-reviewed
Used by: Water, scale reference: Evaporation from 1.42 million lakes and reservoirs worldwide
- https://www.usgs.gov/water-science-school/science/total-water-use-united-states
2015 data (Dieter et al. 2018) · government
Used by: Water, scale reference: U.S. total water withdrawals, all uses, 2015 (USGS)
- https://www.usgs.gov/publications/estimated-use-water-united-states-2015
2018 (2015 data) · government
Used by: Water, scale reference: U.S. total water withdrawals, all uses, 2015 (USGS)
- https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/pp1894D
2025-01-15 · government
Used by: Water, scale reference: Lower 48 consumptive use for public supply, crop irrigation, and thermoelectric power, water years 2010-20 (USGS); Water, scale reference: Lower 48 withdrawals for public supply, crop irrigation, and thermoelectric power, water years 2010-20 (USGS); Water, scale reference: CONUS thermoelectric power consumptive use (fresh), 2010-20
- https://water.usgs.gov/vizlab/water-availability/07-water-use
accessed 2026-09-25 · government
Used by: Water, scale reference: Lower 48 consumptive use for public supply, crop irrigation, and thermoelectric power, water years 2010-20 (USGS)
- https://www.usgs.gov/mission-areas/water-resources/science/water-use-united-states
accessed 2026-09-25 · government
Used by: Water, scale reference: Lower 48 withdrawals for public supply, crop irrigation, and thermoelectric power, water years 2010-20 (USGS)
- https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0034425719301063
2019-06-01 (Remote Sensing of Environment 226:109-124; online 2019-04-09) · peer-reviewed
Used by: Water, scale reference: Evaporation from 721 large reservoirs in the lower 48 (Zhao and Gao 2019)
- https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/sir20135229
2013 (SIR 2013-5229) · government
Used by: Water, scale reference: Lake Mead evaporation, measured (USGS)
- https://www.usbr.gov/research/projects/detail.cfm?id=8119
last updated 2020-06-22 (project FY2018 to FY2020) · government
Used by: Water, scale reference: Lake Powell evaporation (Bureau of Reclamation)
- https://resources.fina.org/fina/document/2022/02/08/77c3058d-b549-4543-8524-ad51a857864e/210805-Facilities-Rules_clean.pdf
2021-08-05 (Facilities Rules 2021-2025, version 5 August 2021) · standards body
Used by: Water, scale reference: Olympic swimming pool at the minimum competition dimensions
- https://cdn-dynmedia-1.microsoft.com/is/content/microsoftcorp/microsoft/msc/documents/presentations/CSR/2026-Microsoft-Environmental-Data-Fact-Sheet-PDF.pdf
2026 (FY25, year ended 2025-06-30) · company-disclosed
Used by: Water, scale reference: Olympic swimming pool at the minimum competition dimensions; Water, data centers and AI: Microsoft total water consumption (company-wide); Water, data centers and AI: Microsoft total water withdrawal; Water, data centers and AI: Microsoft's San Antonio datacenters, water withdrawal, FY25 (company-disclosed); Water, data centers and AI: Microsoft company-wide consumption / withdrawal (derived: 8,170 / 13,266); Water, local context: local context
- https://www.gcsaa.org/who-we-are/media/news-release/2025-news-releases/2025/12/30/golf-courses-reduce-water-usage-by-31-percent-according-to-national-survey
2025-12-30 · trade press
Used by: Water, scale reference: US golf facilities, water applied, 2024
- https://www.gcsaa.org/who-we-are/media/news/2022/07/26/golf-courses-reduce-water-usage-by-29-percent-according-to-national-survey
2022-07-26 · trade press
Used by: Water, scale reference: US golf facilities, water applied, 2024
- https://www.epa.gov/watersense/outdoors
updated 2026-07-20 · government
Used by: Water, scale reference: US residential outdoor water use
- https://www.epa.gov/watersense/statistics-and-facts
updated 2026-03-11 · government
Used by: Water, scale reference: Water one American uses at home per day
- https://www.epa.gov/watersense/how-we-use-water
updated 2026-08-04 · government
Used by: Water, scale reference: Water one American uses at home per day; Water, water cycle: water cycle
- https://waterfootprint.org/product-gallery/details.php?product=3
accessed 2026-09-25 (data 1996-2005) · research or NGO report
Used by: Water, scale reference: Beef in a quarter-pound (113 g) patty, lifecycle water footprint (derived)
- https://waterfootprint.org/product-gallery/details.php?product=16
accessed 2026-09-25 (data 1996-2005) · research or NGO report
Used by: Water, scale reference: Cotton T-shirt (250 g), lifecycle water footprint
- https://waterfootprint.org/product-gallery/details.php?product=15
accessed 2026-09-25 (data 1996-2005) · research or NGO report
Used by: Water, scale reference: Cup of coffee (125 mL, 7 g roasted), lifecycle water footprint
- https://www.waterfootprint.org/resources/Mekonnen-Hoekstra-2011-WaterFootprintCrops.pdf
2011 (Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 15:1577-1600) · peer-reviewed
Used by: Water, scale reference: One pound of shelled almonds, lifecycle water footprint (derived)
- https://harcresearch.org/news/texas-data-center-boom-could-consume-up-to-161-billion-gallons-of-water-annually-by-2030/
2026-01-21 · research or NGO report
Used by: Water, scale reference: Texas data centers, water for cooling and electricity generation, 2025 estimate; Water, local context: local context
- https://harcresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/2026/01/Thirsty-Data-Water-Use-and-The-Projected-Data-Center-Boom-in-Texas.pdf
2026-01-21 · research or NGO report
Used by: Water, scale reference: Texas data centers, water for cooling and electricity generation, 2025 estimate; Water, local context: local context
- https://www.texastribune.org/2025/09/25/texas-data-center-water-use/
2025-09-25 · trade press
Used by: Water, scale reference: Texas data centers, water for cooling and electricity generation, 2025 estimate
- https://www.houstonpublicmedia.org/articles/news/energy-environment/2026/08/05/558684/texas-data-centers-water-power-energy-use-environment/
2026-08-05 · trade press
Used by: Water, scale reference: Texas data centers, water for cooling and electricity generation, 2025 estimate; Water, local context: local context
- http://www.twdb.texas.gov/hydro_survey/joepool/2022-05/JoePool2022_FinalReport.pdf
2022 survey (April 13 to May 12, 2022) · government
Used by: Water, scale reference: Joe Pool Lake (Dallas-Fort Worth) evaporation, average day (derived from TWDB quadrangle rates)
- https://waterdatafortexas.org/lake-evaporation-rainfall/api/quads/510/yearly
accessed 2026-09-25 · government
Used by: Water, scale reference: Joe Pool Lake (Dallas-Fort Worth) evaporation, average day (derived from TWDB quadrangle rates)
- https://waterdatafortexas.org/lake-evaporation-rainfall/api/quad_polygons
accessed 2026-09-25 · government
Used by: Water, scale reference: Joe Pool Lake (Dallas-Fort Worth) evaporation, average day (derived from TWDB quadrangle rates)
- https://waterdatafortexas.org/reservoirs/individual/joe-pool
2026-09-25 · government
Used by: Water, scale reference: Joe Pool Lake (Dallas-Fort Worth) evaporation, average day (derived from TWDB quadrangle rates)
- https://www.newsweek.com/texas-data-center-water-artificial-intelligence-2107500
2025-08-01 · trade press
Used by: Water, scale reference: Two San Antonio data centers (Microsoft and the Army Corps), water used in 2023 and 2024 combined, as reported; Water, scale reference: Texas data centers, HARC projections as reported in July and August 2025 (superseded by HARC's January 2026 white paper); Water, local context: local context
- https://techiegamers.com/texas-data-centers-quietly-draining-water/
2025-07-29 · trade press
Used by: Water, scale reference: Two San Antonio data centers (Microsoft and the Army Corps), water used in 2023 and 2024 combined, as reported; Water, scale reference: Texas data centers, HARC projections as reported in July and August 2025 (superseded by HARC's January 2026 white paper) (also reported)
- https://www.sacurrent.com/news/san-antonio-data-centers-guzzled-463-million-gallons-of-water-as-area-faced-drought-38116670/
2025-07-30 · trade press
Used by: Water, scale reference: Two San Antonio data centers (Microsoft and the Army Corps), water used in 2023 and 2024 combined, as reported (also reported)
- https://www.texasmonthly.com/news-politics/data-centers-sapping-texas-water-electricity/
2025-12-19 · trade press
Used by: Water, scale reference: Two San Antonio data centers (Microsoft and the Army Corps), water used in 2023 and 2024 combined, as reported (also reported)
- https://www.ksat.com/news/ksat-investigates/2026/07/28/texas-law-shields-san-antonio-area-data-center-water-usage-from-public-records-requests/
2026-07-28 · trade press
Used by: Water, scale reference: Two San Antonio data centers (Microsoft and the Army Corps), water used in 2023 and 2024 combined, as reported (also reported); Water, local context: local context
- https://www.austinchronicle.com/news/texas-is-still-in-drought-and-ai-data-centers-are-quietly-guzzling-up-water-13343827/
2025-07-24 · trade press
Used by: Water, scale reference: Texas data centers, HARC projections as reported in July and August 2025 (superseded by HARC's January 2026 white paper) (also reported)
- https://www.osti.gov/biblio/2483629
2024-12-22 · government
Used by: Water, data centers and AI: US data centers, indirect water consumed at power plants for their 176 TWh; Water, data centers and AI: US electricity average water consumption intensity (LBNL/Siddik method)
- https://blogs.microsoft.com/blog/2026/06/24/inside-microsofts-two-decade-push-to-cut-water-intensity-while-scaling-for-growth/
2026-06-24 · company-disclosed
Used by: Water, data centers and AI: Microsoft average datacenter WUE
- https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/microsoft-cloud/blog/2024/12/09/sustainable-by-design-next-generation-datacenters-consume-zero-water-for-cooling/
2024-12-09 · company-disclosed
Used by: Water, data centers and AI: Microsoft average datacenter WUE; Water, local context: local context
- https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12827721/
2025-12-17 (Patterns 7(1):101430) · peer-reviewed
Used by: Water, data centers and AI: Global data centers, direct + indirect water consumption (IEA, via de Vries-Gao); Water, data centers and AI: AI systems worldwide, estimated water footprint
- https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2024/09/18/energy-ai-use-electricity-water-data-centers/
2024-09-18 · trade press
Used by: Water, data centers and AI: 100-word GPT-4 email (Washington Post with UC Riverside)
- https://aiweekly.co/alerts/uc-riverside-walks-back-ais-viral-water-per-prompt-figure
2026-07 (summarizing The Atlantic, https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/2026/07/how-much-water-data-centers-use/687934/) · trade press
Used by: Water, data centers and AI: GPT-4 prompt, reported revised estimate from Ren's group
- https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/2026/07/how-much-water-data-centers-use/687934/
2026-07 (summarizing The Atlantic, https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/2026/07/how-much-water-data-centers-use/687934/) · trade press
Used by: Water, data centers and AI: GPT-4 prompt, reported revised estimate from Ren's group
- https://www.ucs.org/resources/water-power-plant-cooling
accessed 2026-09-25 (table from Macknick et al. 2012) · research or NGO report
Used by: Water, data centers and AI: Power plant cooling consumption ranges by technology (L per kWh): coal recirculating 1.82-4.16, once-through 0.38-1.20; NGCC recirculating 0.49-1.14, once-through 0.08-0.38, dry 0-0.015; nuclear recirculating 2.27-3.03, once-through 0.38-1.51; solar thermal trough wet 2.74-4.20, dry 0.16-0.30
- https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/7/4/045802
2012 (Environmental Research Letters 7:045802) · peer-reviewed
Used by: Water, data centers and AI: Power plant cooling consumption ranges by technology (L per kWh): coal recirculating 1.82-4.16, once-through 0.38-1.20; NGCC recirculating 0.49-1.14, once-through 0.08-0.38, dry 0-0.015; nuclear recirculating 2.27-3.03, once-through 0.38-1.51; solar thermal trough wet 2.74-4.20, dry 0.16-0.30
- https://www.usgs.gov/water-science-school/science/evaporation-and-water-cycle
accessed 2026-09-25 · government
Used by: Water, water cycle: water cycle
- https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/21/779/2017/hess-21-779-2017.html
2017-02-08 · peer-reviewed
Used by: Water, water cycle: water cycle
- https://www.nature.com/articles/s43017-021-00181-9
2021-07-13 · peer-reviewed
Used by: Water, water cycle: water cycle
- https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2010WR009127
2010 · peer-reviewed
Used by: Water, water cycle: water cycle
- https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2025-ai-impacts-data-centers-water-data/
2025-05-08 · trade press
Used by: Water, local context: local context
- https://developingtelecoms.com/telecom-technology/data-centres-networks/17075-google-gets-go-ahead-for-uruguay-data-centre-after-water-worries.html
2024-07-29 · trade press
Used by: Water, local context: local context
- https://karendhao.com/20251217/empire-water-changes
2025-12-17 · trade press
Used by: Water, local context: local context
- https://www.source-material.org/amazon-microsoft-google-trump-data-centres-water-use/
2025-04-09 · research or NGO report
Used by: Water, local context: local context
- https://www.kold.com/2025/08/06/city-council-votes-end-project-blue/
2025-08-06 · trade press
Used by: Water, local context: local context